Lfl 894 

1913a rpjjj, 

SCHOOL SYSTEM OF 
NORWAY 

BY 

DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON, M.A. 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OP 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

IN 

THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 

THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 

TO 

THE GRADUATE FACULTY 



IOWA CITY, IOWA 
1912 



THE 

SCHOOL SYSTEM OF 
NORWAY 

BY 

DAVID ALLEN ANDERSON, M. A. 



SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF 

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 

TO 

THE GRADUATE FACULTY 



THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 
THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF IOWA 



IOWA CITY, IOWA 
1912 



LAS94- 

Copyright, 1913, by Richard G. Badger t\ 



All rights reserved 






The Gorham Press, Boston, U. S. A. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

THIS account is a descriptive statement of 
the organization, management, operation, 
and efficiency of the public school system of 
Norway. The intent has been to consider 
only the more vital features, those essentials which 
definitely shape the products of educational endeavor. 
Many topics of interest have been touched but briefly 
while others have been omitted altogether. Some 
attention has been given to pointing out good qualities 
of the Norwegian schools and to indicating wherein we 
might improve our own. 

The materials entering into the make-up of this 
dissertation were gathered during a summer and 
autumn devoted to travel and study in Norway. Much 
time was spent in study at the University Library in 
Christiania and still more in the visitation of schools. 
It was with pleasure that I availed myself of the oppor- 
tunity to see the schools in operation. I observed 
recitations throughout the entire program of study in 
every grade from the kindergarten to the University. 
I also visited many special schools and other educational 
institutions both public and private. Further than 
this, I was benefited by frequent conferences with the 
leading educators of the country and by almost con- 
stant associations with schoolmen, patrons, and stu-' 



4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

dents. These personal investigations enabled me to 
become familiar with the spirit and work of the schools, 
and they furnish backgromid for a large part of the 
content of this treatise. Since no adequate account of 
the schools of Norway is in print, the authority for this 
work has been gained chiefly from school laws, annual 
reports from the Department of Ecclesiastical and 
Educational Affairs (chiefly statistical), and the in- 
dividual research referred to above. 

It was my good fortune to be provided with official 
credentials as holder of a Traveling Fellowship for 
study in Norway from the State University of Iowa; a 
commission to study the school system of Norway 
from His Excellency, B. F. Carroll, the Governor of 
the State of Iowa; and a letter of introduction to Nor- 
way's educational executives from Hon. Elmer Ells- 
worth Brown, at that time Commissioner of Education 
for the United States. These credentials had the 
effect of mtensifying the already superior courtesy and 
oblighig disposition of the Norwegian officials and 
schoolmen, who gave me free access to every facility 
for the pursuance of my work within the state and 
volmitarily offered their co-operation whenever I might 
desire it. Their gracious exemplification of the spirit 
of brotherly kindness made my work among them a 
constant delight. I desire to express my gratitude to 
the Norwegians wherever I traveled for the rare cordial- 
ity characterizing my reception among them and to 
acknowledge my obligations to J. K. Qvigstad, chef for 
Kirk-og Undervisningsdepartmentet; Knut Johannes 
Hougen, byraachef for Undervisningsvaesen; A. H. Rae- 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE 5 

der, Undervisningsraadeis formand; Johan Andreas 
Johnsen, SkoledireJdoren i Kristiania stift; Otto Andreas 
Anderssen, Bestyrer og forstelaerer i det Paedagogiske 
Seminar for Laerere ved hoiere Almenskoler, for valuable 
suggestions and careful reading and criticism of the 
entire work in manuscript; further to Iowa's Board of 
Education and the Graduate Faculty of the State 
University of Iowa for the appointment which made 
possible the investigation; to Professor F. E. Bolton, 
who first suggested that I make the study and who has 
constantly been to me a wise counsellor and a willing 
co-operator; and finally to my wife who, through all, 
has been both critic and companion, 

David Allen Anderson. 
The State University of Iowa, 
Iowa City, 

May, 1912, 



REVIEWER'S PREFACE 

Kristiania den 16 februar 1912. 

Jeg har med stor fornoielse gjennemlaest Mr. David 
A. Andersons fremstilling av Norges Undervisnings- 
vaesen og fundet den i all vaesentlige ting korrekt, 
fuldstaendig og oplysende. Gjennem personlig iagtta- 
gelse, samtale med kompetente maend og studium av 
den vigtigste litteratur er det lykkes forfatteren at 
danne sig en klar og noiagtig forestilling om de norske 
skolers ordning og saeregne arbeidsformer i deres 
historiske tilblivelse og nuvaerende vilkaar. Hans 
reflektioner og domme vedner om paedagogiske ind- 
sight og uavhaengig opfatning. Det er mulig at ban 
nu og da er noget tilboielig til at domme vel gunstig 
om vore skoleinstitutioners effektivitet og vort folks 
interesse og offervillighed for at gjore denne saa stor 
some mulig, men dette for haenge sammen med at ban 
ser tingene mot en bakgrund av amerikanske forbold, 
som ban onsker reformeret. 

Jeg bar ikke bavt anledning til at kontroUere i det 
enkelte de statistiske opgaver forfatteren meddeler, 
men da disse er bentet ut fra ofiicielle kilder tviler jeg 
ikke paa at de er rigtige. 

Professor dr Otto Anderssen, 

Principal of the Pedagogical Seminary annexed to the 
University of Christiania. 



REVIEWER'S PREFACE 

(Translation) 

Christiania, February 16, 1912. « 
I have, with great pleasure, read through Mr. David 
A. Anderson's presentation of Norway's school system 
and found it in all essentials correct, complete and 
illuminating. Through personal observation, conver- 
sation with competent men and study of the most 
important literature, the author has succeeded in get- 
ting a clear and exact view of the Norwegian school 
methods and characteristic forms of work in their 
historical development and present condition. His 
reflections and judgments testify to pedagogical insight 
and independence of views. It may be that now and 
then he is somewhat inclined to judge too favorably as 
to the eflficiency of our institutions and the interest of 
our people and their readiness to sacrifice in order to 
make this efliciency as high as possible, but this may be 
due to the fact that he views it against a background of 
American conditions, which he desires to improve. 

I have not taken occasion to verify in detail the 
statistical tables the author includes, but since they 
have been gathered from oflScial sources I do not doubt 
that they are correct. 

Professor Dr. Otto Anderssen, 
Principal of the Pedagogical Seminary, affiliated with 
the University of Christiania. 



EDITOR'S PREFACE 

THE most pressing problems of education 
at the present time are those of organization 
and administration of educational forces. 
Problems of method of instruction though 
important are entirely subsidiary, for if all the people 
can be aroused to a desire for education and then be 
shown ways and means of attaining it the very desire 
for education will be the most important factor in 
learning. 

No means of studying questions of organization and 
administration are so valuable as the comparative. 
Various studies of education in foreign countries have 
been made, but there still exists a need for many more 
investigations. Norway has furnished a great many 
illustrious statesmen, scientists and literary masters, 
and is also a country abounding in men of a high type 
of valor, physical prowess, honesty and industry, and 
consequently the educational ideals and practices 
which prevail there should be worthy of most careful 
consideration. Heretofore, only fragmentary accounts 
of Norway's educational system have been available 
in the English language. At the writer's suggestion, 
Mr. Anderson made a trip abroad for the purpose of 
studying the system at first hand. His intimate 
acquaintance with the language was a prime essential 

9 



10 EDITOR'S PREFACE 

in acquiring an understanding through observation 
and reading. That he has made an accurate interpreta- 
tion is attested by the foreword of one of Norway's 
eminent scholars and that he has made an interesting 
account will be conceded by all who peruse the pages. 
It is hoped that many more studies of a similar nature 
will follow in the near future. 

Frederick E. Bolton, 
State University of Washington, 

Seattle, April 8, 1913. 



CONTENTS 
Chapter I 
Background and Organization 

I. Introduction 19 

1 . History of Norway (brief sketch) 19 

2. Geographical features 22 

3. National characteristics, aims and 

ideals 25 

II. Differentiation of Schools 28 

1. Primary schools — rural and city. ... 28 

2. Secondary 30 

3. The University and other schools. . . 32 

III. Distribution of Schools and Pupils. 34 

1. Primary — rural and city 34 

2. Secondary — middle school and gym- 
nasium. 41 

3. Teachers' Seminaries 41 

4. The University 41 

5. Private schools 43 

IV. Pupils 44 

1. Age in primary schools, secondary 
schools and teachers' seminaries .... 44 

2. Comparisons with America in equip- 
ment and time spent in school 50 

3. Speciahzation 51 



CONTENTS 

V. Organization — Relation to state, com- 
mune and city. 51 

1. The state department and its divi- 

sions 51 

2. Units of organization 53 

3. The school board and school com- 

mittees 56 

4. City superintendent (Inspector) and 

ward principles (Overlaererer) 60 

5. Private citizens a factor 61 

6. Financial support of schools 62 

VI. Buildings and Grounds 64 

1. General character of buildings 64 

2. Equipment 64 

3. Playgrounds 69 

4. Homes for principals and teachers. . . 70 

VII. General Features of Inner Organiz- 
ation 71 

1. The teaching staff 71 

2. Plan of instruction 72 

3. Gymnastics 74 

4. Lunches 75 

5. School discipline 76 

6. Attendance 77 

7. Health 77 



CONTENTS 

Chapter II 

Teachers 

I. Qualification and Certification of 

Teachers 79 

1. General situation and tendencies... 79 

2. Special teachers 80 

II. Training of Teachers 81 

1. Introductory 81 

2. Seminaries — establishment and work 83 

III. Teachers' Official Titles. 85 

1 . In the several schools — significance . 85 



IV. Teachers' Tenure of Office 86 

1. Positions — Permanent and tempor- 
ary 87 

2. Comparisons with conditions in 
America 89 

3. Changes in teaching staff (with 
tables) 89 

V. Teachers' Salaries 91 

1. General statement 91 

2. Additional benefits 92 

3. Schedules (with tables) 94 



CONTENTS 

Chapter III 

Courses of Study in State Schools 

I. Introductory — ^Rise, development, and 

present form of the curriculum,. 96 

1 . Origin and evolution of the course of 
study 96 

a. The early schools; their work, in- 
fluence, and development in Nor- 
way 97 

2. Three sections of schools 99 

•II. The Primary School 101 

1. Rural and city 101 

2. Schedules of courses 104 

a. Comparisons 106 

b. Subjects emphasized 107 

3. Outline of subjects of instruction. . . . 108 

a. Religion 108 

b. Norwegian 118 

c. Mathematics 125 

d. Geography 129 

e. History 134 

f. Nature study 139 

g. Other subjects : writing and draw- 
ing, vocal music, manual training, 
gymnastics 146 

III. The Middle School 149 

1. Its standard, aim, and method 149 

2. Outline of subjects of instruction. . . . 151 



CONTENTS 

IV. The Gymnasium 162 

1 . Outline of subjects of instruction ... 162 



Chapter IV 

Interpretative Conclusions 

1. The people and their ideals 181 

2. Facilities for education 184 

3. Directing authority and management of 

schools 187 

4. Teachers' training 191 

5. The teacher's life 195 

6. The curriculum 197 

a. Religious instruction and education. . . . 198 

b. The classics 201 

c. Physical culture 204 

d. Vocal music 206 

7. Lines of instruction in the gymnasium 207 

8. Co-education 210 

9. The school year 214 

10. School lunches 215 

11. Comparative attainments 217 

12. Methods of instruction 220 

13. Continuity of effort 222 

Bibliography 225 

Index 229 



THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 
OF NORWAY 

Chapter I 
BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 

I. INTRODUCTION 

THE history of mankind in Norway covers a 
period of at least five thousand years and 
includes a great variety of interesting inci- 
dents and conditions. The accounts of the 
earlier ages may be read only in archaeological forma- 
tions, while for more recent times, these silent records 
are supplemented and enriched by traditions. All 
such accounts are of deep interest and significance but 
only in a measure reliable. We have no really authen- 
tic information regarding Norway's political history 
until the reign of Harald the Fair Haired (860-930). 
We do know, however, that, previous to his establish- 
ment of the sovereign state of Norway in 872, the 
people had known only the rule of numerous petty, 
warring earls and kings. Besides this, the entire 
country had been subjected to the devastations of the 
vikings. These sea robbers were the terror of all the 
coast countries in western Europe and the British Isles 

19 



20 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

until about the year 900 when sea robbery at home 
was aboHshed, and the Norsemen became colonizers, 
migrating to surrounding islands, the west and south 
of Europe, and probably America. Now when piracy 
began to decline the people rose to a higher plane of 
living, and the prosperity attained through peace and 
industry was found to be the more desirable. A long 
succession of Idngs, some good and some evil, ruled the 
land. Paganism was gradually overcome, and about 
the year 1,000 Christianity was established. 

From this time on, for several centuries, the country 
experienced only moderate visible progress though 
large gains were made in potential powers. In 1381, 
Norway entered into a union with Denmark and re- 
mained in large measure subject to her power until 
1814. This period of more than four hundred years 
was a season of little good and of great hardships to 
the people. Their development received little atten- 
tion, the resources of the country and the cause of 
education were neglected, and the masses were not 
recognized in a way that would tend to their enlighten- 
ment and progress. The entire nation suffered from 
international difficulties as well as from oppression at 
home. Conditions remained unimproved and the 
latent powers of the people, which had been accumulat- 
ing for generations, found no adequate means for ex- 
pression. 

When in 1814 the treaty of Kiel, sanctioned by the 
European powers, forced Norway into an unwilling 
union with Sweden, the Norwegians revolted; and, in 
their attempt to liberate themselves, adopted a con- 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 21 

stitution for their government.* Their revolt created 
ill feelings on the part of the Swedes while the demands 
for complete sovereignty by Sweden were resented by 
the Norwegians. The adoption of this constitution by 
the people of Norway and their standing so tenaciously 
for its recognition are manifestations of the spirit which 
had been developing among them for centuries. They 
believed that they were being imposed upon and stood 
firm for their rights. They had felt the crushing hand 
of foreign rule, they had observed the benefits of inde- 
pendence, they had developed confidence in their otnti 
powers, and now they were converted to the idea that 
the time for home rule was upon them. Civil liberty 
was their dream. State rights came to be demanded. 
Their time to act in a decisive manner had come. The 
people had grow^i into a nation deserving and in need of 
larger powers, and their best advancement was in great 
measure dependent upon the exercise of these powers. 
Conditions then justified their demands and Sweden, 
appreciating the situation, yielded, acknowledged the 
independence of Norway, and agreed to govern in 
accordance, with the newly adopted constitution. On 
the other hand, Norway acceded to the demands of 
Sweden in accepting the King of Sweden as theirs also. 
Now for nearly one hundred years this union was 
maintained. Comparative peace and prosperity pre- 
vailed and the outlook seemed favorable for both 
nations. Sweden profited because of the new relations, 
and Norway gained in strength and power through her 

*The Constitution (Grundlov) adopted at Eidsvold, Norway, 
May 17, 1814. 



22 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

experience in individual initiative and governmental 
duties generally. While the relations between the two 
countries were in the main friendly, on various occasions 
Norway felt that her rights were not always respected. 
The people craved larger privileges, more recognition 
among the nations of the world, and the exercise of 
greater authority. The functioning of capacities that 
had long lain dormant revealed to her the powers that 
were still latent. Norway became eager for absolute 
independence and these feelings rose to larger and 
larger proportions until desires became demands. All 
the people were ready and offered their services, their 
fortunes (whether large or scant), and their lives in the 
cause of freedom. Finally, formally, and without 
bloodshed, the bonds uniting the two countries were 
severed in 1905 and Norway became an independent 
nation. 

Having briefly sketched the history of the country 
let us now turn our attention to its geography. Nor- 
way, as we all know, lies in the northwestern part of 
Europe, and measures over one thousand one hundred 
miles from north to south and from two hundred to 
nearly five hundred miles from east to west. Politi- 
cally it is divided into eighteen counties (Amter) and 
the cities of Christiania and Bergen. These counties 
are subdivided into six hundred sixty-six town- 
ships or communes {Kommuner) which are again 
divided into school districts or circles {Kredser) num- 
bering in all five thousand nine hundred seventy.* 

The area is approximately one hundred and twenty- 
.*Statistics for 1907 — the last published. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 23 

five thousand square miles. Nearly all of it is made up 
of mountains which have no regularity in distribution, 
a large portion of them being merely heaps of barren 
rock thrown up in conglomerate masses. The valleys 
are as numerous and irregular as the mountains. In 
them are lakes, rivers, and waterfalls, their waters pure 
and clear as crystal. The lakes differ greatly in out- 
line and size. The rivers in their windings dash furi- 
ously through precipitous, rugged, rocky channels, or 
glide murmuringly through quiet valleys until they 
reach the fjords which appear like huge arms of the sea, 
reaching deep into the earth and extending far inland. 
The waterfalls vary from mere threads tinkling into 
tiny pools to great torrents gushing over dizzy preci- 
pices. Viewed in combination these features present 
an infinite variety of exquisitely beautiful scenes. 

The climate of Norway is greatly diversified owing 
to the wide range in latitude and the influence of the 
Gulf stream. In the northern part and on the highest 
mountains there are vast fields of snow during the 
entire year, while in some of the sheltered portions 
along the western coast, the climate is well adapted to 
the cultivation of some of the tropical plants. It is, 
of course, essential that all plants that are cultivated 
be of rapid growth and of quiclc maturity, since their 
seasons are quite short. The atmospheric conditions 
are excelled nowhere. Few locations on the earth 
enjoy such freshness or provide so much mental and 
physical invigoration. Just the joy of living is more 
than recompense for all one's expense and trouble in 
going for a season into this summer home of nature. 



24 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Being situated so far to the north the days of sum- 
mer are very long while those of winter are extremely 
short. This is noticeable even in the southern part of 
the country, and as one goes farther north it is more 
and more striking until upon reaching the arctic circle 
the summer traveler has the unique experience of see- 
ing the sun at midnight. It is visible for weeks or 
months at a time, according to whether one is near the 
circle or farther toward the pole. For corresponding 
periods during the winter seasons the sun does not ap- 
pear at all. It should not l^e inferred that these sun- 
less days are intensely dark and gloomy. On the con- 
trary, they, as well as the midnight sun, have fascma- 
tions peculiar to themselves and are of deep mterest, 
especially to the novice in that latitude. The glitter 
of the stars, the glow of the moon, and the palpitating 
brilliance of the northern lights, combine with the 
light reflected from the vast snow fields and compensate 
in part for the absence of the direct rays from the sun. 

The industries and occupations of the Norwegians 
are dependent in large measure upon environing con- 
ditions. Nearly one-fourth of the country is covered 
with a heavy gro\\i:h of timber; hence, lumbering affords 
a large part of the most profitable employment. Much 
of the mountainous land can be used only for pasturage 
and, as a result, dairying claims considerable attention. 
Only a very small portion of the area (about four per 
cent) is suitable for agriculture and owing to this 
limitation of opportunity, comparatively few of the 
people are farmers. Their numerous fisheries supply 
cargoes, and train loads of fresh and cured fish to the 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 25 

markets of the world. Fishing is, in fact, one of the 
most important industries, and a large percentage of 
the wage earners of the country engage in it. Since 
the bulk of their travel and transportation is by water, 
a great many become sailors. A certain amount of 
manufacturing also is done, and this provides another 
means of earning a livelihood. The fact that nearly 
all of the people are gathered into cities, towns, and 
settlements along the coast, is explained l>y a con- 
sideration of the activities and conditions herein set 
forth. 

The people of Norway are large of stature, vigorous, 
and alert in mind and body. They have ever been un- 
daunted in their efforts to overcome the great, natural 
barriers to progress and to secure what they believed 
would be for their well-being. Toiling patiently and 
persistently, suffering hardships on land and perils at 
sea, they have developed the well-known characteristics 
of their sturdy race. The long, rigorous winters taught 
the people to provide amply for the needs of the future, 
and they learned also the economy of making every en- 
deavor count for permanency. It has been and is 
still their aim and intent to so direct their efforts that 
their citizens may experience and enjoy not only in the 
present the best conditions m^ade possible by the world 's 
highest attainments, but that later generations also 
may reap valuable benefits therefrom. They realize 
that it is easily possible for today 's provisions to supply 
the best for the present, and at the same time to bless 
tomorrow and the next day and all the com.ing years. 

The Norwegians are as democratic in mind and 



26 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

disposition as any people of the earth. They demand 
that the masses shall receive whatever benefit may 
come from prosperity at home, from their relations 
with other nations, or from legislation. They advo- 
cate further that right now is the time to increase op- 
portunities, to multiply privileges, to raise standards of 
living, and to insure through conservative action a 
substantial basis on which the coming generations may 
safely build. In accord with their aims and ideals 
they study the questions of education, labor and capital, 
and many others of vital interest to the people. They 
seek out sources, eliminating the undesirable and cul- 
tivating those of favorable growi:h and fruitage. Rec- 
ognizing their own resourcefulness and al)ility, the 
Norsemen strive to gain for themselves and for their 
descendants material prosperity and true culture. 
To these ends they foster educational advantages for 
all, the development of the arts and sciences, and the 
elevation of labor. 

Educationally, they have ever been desirous of pro- 
viding the l^est possible advantages. During the latter 
part of the nineteenth century and the few years of the 
present one, they have been in a position to put into 
execution a number of advance ideas which they have 
done without hesitation. Being observant of what 
other nations provide they have been ready to select 
from various sources whatever good they found, to 
eliminate any undesirable features which revealed 
tliemselves, and to strengthen the weaker points. 
Though they have been forced by conditions to assume 
and maintain a conservative attitude toward every 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 27 

new project or attempt at reform, they have been also 
too democratic to permit tradition or precedent to 
bind them down or to hinder them in making changes 
in their school system, which they were convinced 
by experience or study would be for their good. In 
harmony with this they have been eager to make re- 
visions where necessary; to introduce new features, 
which had been tested at home or abroad and found 
successful; and to cast aside relics of the past, unneces- 
sary phases of work, and those things which miglit be 
supplanted by materials of superior advantage or 
value to the people served. They have become 
hal)ituated to examining the new from every conceiv- 
able viewpoint, to finding its foundations, to testing 
its values, and to weighing its effects. When a thing 
has been thoroughly studied it is accepted or rejected 
according to whether it is adjudged desirable or un- 
desirable for their use under existing conditions. In 
their effort to answer the demands of the people and to 
supply their needs, schools have been established ac- 
cording to local requirements. That is to say, every 
community enjoys school advantages, and every child 
in the entire state is privileged to receive instruction 
for a certain num])er of weeks each year at the expense 
of the state. All children are required to attend the 
schools of the state at least twelve weeks each year for 
seven years, or to receive instruction elsewhere which 
is equivalent to the amount required. In the more 
populous places higher schools also are provided for 
those who desire to take advantage of the opportuni- 
ties afforded in them. 



28 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

II. DIFFERENTIATION OF SCHOOLS. 

It was early recognized by the Norwegians that 
through the means of education, better than any other 
way, they could develop a people qualified to pursue 
the arts, to cultivate the sciences, to appreciate and en- 
joy the highest culture, and to maintain and develop 
their noblest ideals of citizenship and richest concep- 
tions of statehood. Having these objects in mind 
they endeavored to establish schools of instruction 
and training along every legitimate line. Beginning 
with the most essential they worked unceasingly, pro- 
viding additional worthy kinds of instruction as rapidly 
as possible, until their efforts resulted in their present 
school system. 

Perhaps the most important feature of their work 
was the establishment of primary schools, which fur- 
nish general education. These schools provide seven 
years of elementary instruction for children l»etween 
the ages of seven and fourteen years, and are literally 
the peojile's schools {Folkeskoler) . The law requires 
that pupils must be regular in attendance, and that 
parents, who fail to have their children in school in 
harmony with the provisions of the law, be fined ac- 
cording to the seriousness and extent of the offense. 
It is further provided that these schools shall be in 
operation for at least twelve weeks in the year, and that 
this time may be extended according to local demands 
or needs. As a matter of fact, nearly all of them in 
the cities and many of them in the country operate 
forty weeks per year. As a consequence of liberal 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 29 

provisions and enforced regulations, Norway has 
achieved an eminent place educationally among the 
nations of the world. 

In the rural sections primary schools are held in 
comfortable, well equipped, and conveniently located 
schoolhouses and are taught by competent teachers 
who live near by in homes provided for them. In a 
few remote, rugged sections of the country, where 
children are few and scattering or where locations 
accessible to all cannot be found, they have no fixed 
schools, but instead what are termed ambulatory 
schools (OmgangsJcoler). There are no schoolliouses 
in these districts but the officials designate certain 
houses* as the places where children go at stated times 
to receive instruction. The teacher meets the children 
of the neighborhood in a given home and teaches them 
for a specified time, passes to the next designated place, 
and continues until his rounds are completed. Form- 
erly, a very large number of these schools existed, but 
as roadways were extended or improved and the peo- 
ple became able to erect and mamtain schoolhouses, 
the demand for ambulatory schools decreased until 
now nearly all of them are supplanted by fixed schools. 
In 1837, ninety-two per cent of the children attending 
school in the country were taught in ambulatory schools, 
while in 1907 this was the case with less than one per 
cent of them. 

In all the cities and towns excellent educational ad- 

*The law requires the opening of residences having sufficient 
room for the accommodation of these groups of pupils for instruc- 
tional purposes. Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 41. 



30 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

vantages are provided. Usually their school year con- 
sists of forty weeks of six days each. Every provision 
is made for the welfare of the children; excellent in- 
structors are secured, and the equipment for teaching 
purposes is of the best procurable. Furthermore, no 
pains are spared in guarding the children from physical 
discomfort and immoral conditions or associations. 

Simultaneously with the development of the elemen- 
tary schools secondary education moved along advance 
lines. In 1814, when Norway became an independent 
state there were but four of the higher classical (laerde) 
schools within her borders. These were the historic 
cathedral schools (KathedraWcoler) which had been 
established for centuries. As time passed, other second- 
ary schools were organized. Higher education was re- 
organized in 18C9 and again in 1896, when by act of the 
Stoilhnig secondary education was made to include 
the middle school and the gymnasium. The enact- 
ment defines these schools and states their aim as fol- 
lows: "The middle school is a school for children, 
which, in miion with the primary school, gives its pupils 
a complete, thorough, general education, adapted 
to the receptivity of childhood. The gymnasium is a 
school for young people, which on the foundation of the 
middle school, leads on to a complete, higher, general 
education, which may also serve as a basis for scientific 
studies. Both middle school and gymnasium shall 
contribute to the religious and moral training of the 
pupils, and it should also be their common aim to de- 
velop the pupils both mentally and physically into 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 31 

competent young people."* The act requires that 
the middle school shall be no longer than four years, 
and that the gynmasial courses shall be of three years ' 
duration. 

The gymnasia of Norway take up the work where 
the middle schools leave off, and provide three years of 
instruction which concludes with the exanien artium. 
The passing of this examination entitles the individual 
to become a student in the university. Previous to 
the time of entering the gymnasium the subjects of 
instruction are uniform for all; here they branch into 
two or three lines, any one of which may be selected by 
the pupil and followed to its completion. The main 
divisions of the work are represented in the names of 
the courses — the Real and the Linguistic-Historical. 
The latter of these is again divided in some schools, 
one of its two lines including Latin. The Real course 
of instruction is largely scientific while the Linguistic- 
Historical, true to its name, embodies a large amount 
of language and history. In case the course including 
Latin is offered, Latin replaces some of the work in 
modern languages and history. 

The middle school, then, is the second step in the 
educational ladder and builds upon the work previously 
done in the primary school. No middle school is 
privileged to include work lower down than the sixth 
grade. In other words, the primary schools are the 
only ones which are authorized to present the work of 
the first five grades or years of school instruction. 
The courses of study are so arranged that a child may 

*Law for Higher State Schools, Sec. 2. 



32 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

pass from the primary school after completing the 
fifth grade and enter directly upon the studies in the 
regular four year course of the middle school. On the 
other hand a pupil may continue in the primary school 
mitil its completion — seven years — and then enter a 
middle school and finish its requirements in three years . 
While nearly all middle schools present a four year 
course there are a few which offer only three years of 
instruction. In order to enter these latter schools the 
child must have finished the seven years of instruction 
in the primary schools. Middle schools are under the 
inspection of state officials and a uniform standard of 
work is required of all of them. The middle school 
examination which marks the completion of the middle 
school course is exactly the same for all pupils in the 
state. In any given year all who take the examina- 
tions write on exactly the same questions on a specified 
hour of a certain day. 

The Royal Frederik University, established by King 
Frederik in 1811, furnishes the summit of educational 
endeavor. Its five faculties — (1) theology, (2) law, 
(3) medicine, (4) mathematics and science, and (5) 
history and philosophy — represent the best products 
of the country and maintain standards of efficiency 
paralleling the achievements of the day. Besides 
the five faculties already mentioned there are (1) The 
Practical Theological Seminary for the training of 
ministers and (2) The Pedagogical Seminary (affiliated) 
for special training of teachers. Through the endeavors 
of the faculties and seminaries enumerated, the neces- 
sary professions, scientific organizations, and philosophic 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 33 

societies are supplied with men of eminent qualifica- 
tions. The state also is supplied from the same source 
with individuals capable of attending to the affairs of 
state in a dignified and competent manner. 

To aid prospective teachers and to maintain high 
professional standards, Norway early established a 
Teachers ' Seminary in each of its six dioceses (Stifter) . 
Having made this ample provision for the training of 
teachers, they were in a position to require a certain 
amount of professional preparation of all candidates 
for appointment to teaching positions. Adherence to 
this laudable principle has saved the state from an over- 
flow of incompetent instructors. While requirements 
were very low for a long time, the increasing supply of 
qualified candidates for positions warranted successive 
shiftings of them to higher and higher standards. At 
present, the teachers of Norway, as a body, rank among 
the best in educational equipment, professional train- 
ing, and morality. 

Technical, agricultural, military, and naval schools 
have been established in order to keep pace with the 
world's developments along these lines. The technical 
school in Trondhjem opened in 1910, sets the require- 
ments for admission as high as those at the university. 
Its work promises to be of unquestioned quality and 
its prospects are very bright. The students at this 
school come chiefly from the scientific course offered 
in the gymnasia or from the several preparatory tech- 
nical schools of Norway. There are many of these 
lower technical schools doing excellent work and some 
of them are modeled after American schools. The work 



34 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of the agricultural college and of the military and naval 
schools is more or less technical along their respective 
lines and meets certain requirements not elsewhere 
provided for. When one notes the variety of schools 
maintained by the Norwegian state, it is evident that 
it is the intent to provide for its citizens a very wide 
range of educational advantages, and at the same time 
to develop the capacities of yoimg people until they are 
able to perform the oflfices of state and nation. 

III. DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS AND PUPILS 

The laws of Norway are specific in their require- 
ments regarding education, and the people are at hand 
to provide the essential means for carrying out the de- 
mands. It is required that in each city or district in 
the entire realm there shall be the necessary number of 
schools to provide instruction for all children of school 
age. This is in answer to the law which makes a re- 
quirement of a certain minimum amount of education 
of all such children. 

The primary schools are distributed in the cities, 
villa^',e-. and rural communes to suit the convenience 
of pupils attending. Other and higher schools are 
provided where most needed. As is true everywhere 
the bulk of work is done in the primary schools. Rural 
and city schools have their own laws and government, 
and are admirably adapted to the needs of their respec- 
tive constituencies. As would be expected, the rural 
schools and the pupils attending them far outnumber 
those in the cities and towns. There are in the coun- 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 35 

try five thousand, nine hundred and seventy schools 
attended by two hundred seventy-five thousand, one 
hundred and fifty-five pupils, while there are but 
sixty-one city school systems having an enrollment of 
ninety thousand, one hundred and twenty-nine pupils.* 
It is seen that there are about three times as many 
pupils in the rural primary schools as are found in the 
city primary schools. The distribution and care of the 
city school pupils are, however, much larger tasks 
than providing for those in the rural sections. In 
order to show conditions in a given city we insert Table 
I which indicates the number of classes and pupils 
in the several grades in the nmeteen primary schools 
of Christiania, and also gives the totals for the entire 
city. Boys and girls attend the same school, but in this 
particular city they are generally separated into dif- 
ferent rooms where they are taught by themselves. 
The schools are coeducational but not generally coin- 
structional. As the table will show, some of them are 
coinstructional through a part of the course while only 
one follows this plan throughout its work. 
♦Statistics for 1907. 



36 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



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BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 37 



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mo pqo pQO PQO pQO P=i^ WO mo 



38 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



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BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 39 



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40 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

In addition to the special features in this table, to 
which we have already called attention, it may be ob- 
served that the total number of boys', girls', and co- 
educational classes; the total number of boys and of 
girls in attendance at each school; and the average 
number of pupils per class in each school are also in- 
cluded. 

The law limits the number of pupils in a class to 
thirty-five, except temporarily or in case of stringency 
in financial conditions, and in no case must there be 
more than forty.* It is seen in the talile that the 
average is above thirty-five in all but one school, but 
it has been exceedingly difiicult in the rapidly growing 
city of Christiania to avoid congestion in the schools. 
In only one of the nineteen schools does the general 
average come within the rule. If they plead economic 
stringency then the averages of all fall within the limits. 

Now a large percentage of children continue their 
education after the completion of the elementary 
course. In 1907, there were nine thousand, eight hun- 
dred and ninety-five pupils in the accredited middle 
schools,! and one thousand, five hundred and ninety- 
three in the gymnasia. About eighteen thousand 
others attended non- accredited secondary schools and 
those of still lower standards — evening schools, con- 
tinuation schools, and various preparatory schools. 
Approximately two thousand were in technical schools 

*Law for City Schools, Sec. 5, as amended on August 15, 1908. 

fSchools undertaking educational work of this character must 
meet specified standards in course of study, equipment, teaching 
staff, etc., to have their work accredited by the state. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 41 

and about one thousand in teachers' seminaries. 
Nearly every town of any considerable consequence has 
a middle school where pupils from the town and sur- 
romiding territory may receive its benefits. The 
larger cities have, in addition to a liberal supply of 
middle schools, one or more gymnasia, according to 
their size. The gymnasia draw from a wider territory 
than do the middle schools because they are fewer and 
farther apart. 

In addition to the six teachers' seminaries main- 
tained by the state, there are four private ones — ten in 
all. Table II indicates the aggregate attendance 
at these institutions and the number of those who 
passed the advanced examinations during the years 
designated. 

The university, of course, draws its students from all 
over the State. It has an attendance of one thousand, 
three hundred or more, about five hundred and fifty 
of whom are annually enrolled direct from the gym- 
nasia. These students represent the best products 
of the country and generally they work with earnest- 
ness and zeal. 



42 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 





tabl: 


E II 






Table Giving Attendance at Teachers 


' Seminaries 


and 


the Number Passing Advanced Examinations. 






Attendance. 


Took Examination. 


Year. 


Male. 


Female. Total. 


1901-02 


755 


204 


135 


339 


1902-03 


980 


192 


129 


321 


1903-04 


953 


216 


184 


400 


1904-05 


902 


174 


119 


293 


1905-06 


955 


208 


147 


355 




Totals 


994 


714 ] 


1,708 




Annual Average 


199 


143 


342 



Private schools have played ai important role in 
Norway. They have had a long and interesting his- 
tory. A number of them do part or all of the work 
represented by the state primary and secondary schools 
and teachers' seminaries. Most of them are located 
in the larger cities and receive recognition and patronage 
from some of the best homes in the land. Their in- 
fluence upon education 'generally has been wholesome. 
The valuable and attractive features introduced by 
them have operated like spurs on those under state 
direction. The cooperative activity which has char- 
acterized the relationship between the two kinds of 
schools has resulted in the betterment of both and in 
the rapid advancement of educational ideals and activ- 
ities throughout the state. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 43 

There are, of course, some fundamental differences 
existing between them. The private schools charge 
a regular tuition in every grade of primary and sec- 
ondary work. The state primary schools are free and 
the tuition in its secondary schools is less than that 
charged in the private schools. It is self-evident that 
private schools are dependent upon tuition receipts 
for both running expenses and profits, while the state 
and communal schools are supported largely by public 
taxation.* Paralleling so nearly the work of the state 
schools, yet being more expensive, the private schools 
have been under the necessity of offering certain in- 
ducements in order to secure pupils. They have been 
made attractive in location, in buildings, in equipment, 
in the personnel of their faculties, and in other ways, 
and their efforts have been richly rewarded as a rule. 

All classes of schools are subject to state regulations 
and inspection. Certain definite requirements must 
be met before a private school may even begin to op- 
erate, and still higher standards must be maintained in 
order for the work to be accredited by the state. Stan- 
dards of excellence are naturally set by state schools and 
the requirements fixed by the state inhibit the starting 
of inferior schools under the pretense of offering some- 
thing "just as good." During recent years some of 
the private schools — those well-known and respected 

* The only difference between state and communal schools 
consists in the fact that in the one case the state and in the other 
a commune takes the initial step in the establishment of the school 
and bears the larger portion of the burden in its maintenance. The 
work of the two is uniform in every particular. They are together 
referred to as state schools in contrast to private schools. 



44 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

because of the nature of work and high standards of 
excellence maintained — have been given special recog- 
nition by the state, and a few of them receive annuities. 
When advancement in nature or improvement in qual- 
ity of school work is rewarded by increase in patronage 
from the state, zest is furnished in the contest for first 
recognition. 

Though the history of the rise, development and in- 
fluence of the private schools of Norway, together with 
a discussion of their present status and worth, might 
furnish an interesting chapter, it becomes necessary 
to let this slight mention suffice and to confine this 
work to a treatise of the schools instituted and directed 
by the state. It may be added, however, that the work 
of the accredited private schools equals in quality and 
receives the same recognition as that done in state 
schools. For example, all graduates from the private 
gymnasia pass the same examinations for artium as 
those who complete the work of the state gymnasia 
and enter the university on exactly the same footing. 

IV. PUPILS 

The compulsory school laws which operate in Nor- 
way determine the age (seven years) at which children 
shall enter school and the regularity of their attendance. 
With this in mind, it is readily understood that as a rule 
each class marches steadily forward, one grade each 
year, until the completion of the school life. As a conse- 
quence there is but little variation in the ages of pupils 
doing the work of any certain grade, and the proportion 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 45 



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46 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of pupils of normal age in the several grades is very 
large. In order to illustrate definitely, a concrete 
situation is presented in Table III, which shows the 
exact conditions existing at a certain time in one of their 
representative cities. 

This table speaks for itself and needs no explanation. 
It is worthy of note, however, that in comparatively 
few instances do the ages vary more than two or three 
years, and that six years is the widest difference in age 
to be found among all the pupils of any given grade of 
work. Furthermore, we call attention to the fact that 
those above normal age in no year aggregated as much 
as ten per cent of the entire number in attendance. 
10.1 per cent represents the entire number outside 
the normal age — ^those above plus those below — for 
the year 1908. During the three former years the 
percentage was still smaller. The reduction in num- 
bers of pupils in the sixth and seventh grades is due in 
large part to the fact that so many pass from the fifth 
grade into the middle school. 

The same conditions of uniformity exist in the sec- 
ondary schools. Having entered at the age of seven 
and having spent five or more years in the primary 
school, the pupils upon entrance to the middle school 
are generally twelve or more years old. In some middle 
schools the average age of those entering will at times 
be less than twelve years. This latter condition is 
usually due to some local situation or rule regarding 
age at entrance upon school work. In order to follow 
the age question to nearer its limits we will present 
Table IV. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 47 






§ 

d 

S 

B 
o 
U 





'^ 




d 




a^ 


pc 


f^ 


t— 


? 


m 


ill 


<! 


fl 


H 








O 



fl, O O OS 00 CO CO 

I?????? 



. rH CO Y op 7" <^ 

H 00 00 C» t- 00 00 



H t- b- «0 CO <0 «0 



. O O O 
CO CO CO W5 CO »f5 



>. «5 »0 «5 »« »0 »f5 

HH '^ '^ '^ ^ ^ '^ 

CO »0 W5 ■* »< CO 

^ij CO CO CO CO CO CO 



I. »< (« (M <W (V 
»« i-H r-H »H i-H i-H 



* * •<— ■ 

o S 2 ^3 



II 



§1 



"" a a 



48 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Attention is called to the step from the last year in 
the middle school to the first year in the gymnasium. 
In several instances there is considerably less than a 
year of difference in age. This is but another illustra- 
tion of the tendencies of the sifting that goes on in the 
natural process of selecting the fittest. Those of keen- 
est intellect are the ones who reach a specific require- 
ment in least time and then proceed in the pursuit of 
advance education. The ones sifted out are more gen- 
erally those whose advance has been more difficult, or 
those who have lagged behind others of their own age. 
The absence of these tends to lower the average age 
in the succeeding grade. Similar conditions in em- 
phasized form are in evidence when we study the ages 
of those who enter the university from year to year. 
While the ages of those just entering the third and final 
year of the gymnasium are on the average more than 
eighteen, the ones who enter the university the follow- 
ing year in September average nineteen years of age or 
a little less. 

In addition to the tables showing the ages of pupils 
throughout the several grades of preparatory and sec- 
ondary education, the following one is inserted to show 
the average age of those in attendance at four of the 
teachers' seminaries. The advance in age with ad- 
vance of grade is not as regular here as in the other 
schools. 



BACKGROUND AJND ORGANIZATION 49 







TABLE V 




Table Showing 


Age 


of Pupils in 


the Teachers' Semi- 


naries at the Begmning of the Year, 1906-7. 






Avera 


,ge age* in grades. 




I. 


II. III. 


Holmestrand 




19-7 


21-3 22-1 


Levanger 




20 


19-8 21-4 


Hamar 




19-2 


20-2 21-7 


Stord 




19-6 


19-11 21 



* Age in years and months. 

There is not as close correspondence between age 
or grade and scholarship in the seminaries as we find 
in the other schools. The greater variation is due to 
several causes, among them are the following: (1) 
The law requires that a teacher must be at least twenty 
years of age.* (2) The previous education of those 
in attendance varies greatly. Many are desirous of 
gettmg as thorough and complete preparation as their 
circumstances admit, while others are seemingly anx- 
ious to enter on the lowest standard admissible. (3) 
Teachers who are eager to improve their qualifications 
frequently return to the seminary after a few years of 
teaching experience in order to complete the course and 
prepare for the better class of positions. 

Comparisons between the educational equipment of 
the American youth and that of his Norwegian cousin 

* Law for City Schools, Sec. 28 as revised in 1908. Law for 
Rural Schools, Sec. 26 as revised in 1908. 



50 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

at any given age are exceedingly difficult to make. We 
have not yet established any specific units or norms 
by which education may be measured. We can make 
neither definite nor satisfactory quantitative or qualita- 
tive measurements of accomplishment. However, a 
careful analysis of the respective courses of study, the 
qualification of teachers, and plans of work, supported 
by the testimony of those who have been teachers in 
both countries, seems to warrant the statement that 
the completion of the gymnasial course of study in 
Norway is comparable to the completion of the sopho- 
more year of work in our American colleges and uni- 
versities. The average age of students is about the 
same in both instances. 

The American children spend a less portion of the 
year in school than do the children in Norway. While 
in our schools we generally have but thirty-six weeks of 
five days each in a year, inclusive of all regular and spec- 
ial holidays, the schools of Norway are in operation 
forty weeks of six days each, exclusive of holidays. 
Leaving out any consideration of holidays, the American 
school year usually amounts to one hundred eighty 
days, while in Norway they have two hundred and forty 
days of school. In other words, eight years of primary 
school and four years of high school in America repre- 
sent only three-fourths as many days of mstruction and 
study as are included in five years of primary school, 
four years of middle school, and three years of gymna- 
sium in Norway. That is to say, to provide the same 
number of days of instruction it would take sixteen 
school years in America to equal twelve in Norway. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 51 

The specialization which characterizes the work of 
the students upon entrance to the Norwegian university 
brings their study within much narrower hmits than 
that of our ordinary juniors in college. Their general 
cultural education concludes with the taking of artium 
while ours usually continues throughout the liberal 
arts course in college or until the degree of Bachelor of 
Arts has been received. A certain amount of special- 
ization is common among our students during the 
later years of their college education, but it covers a 
wider range than in Norway and the greater portion of 
it is reserved for post graduate courses. In Norway 
the professional studies are taken up without any pre- 
liminaries immediately upon entrance to the university. 
In the better professional schools of America, one, two, 
or three years of collegiate work is required as a prepa- 
ration for entrance. 

I. ORGANIZATION RELATION TO STATE, COMMUNE, 

AND CITY 

The highest educational authority of Norway is 
vested in the Department of Ecclesiastical and Educa- 
tional Affairs (Kirke-og Undervisnings-Departmentet), 
and the chief functionary in this department of gov- 
ernment is a member of the King 's cabinet (Statsraad). 
The work of the department is separated into two divi- 
sions, one of which supervises the ecclesiastical acti- 
vities and the other the educational work of the coun- 
try. This latter division is again separated into two 
bureaus, one having charge of primary education and 



52 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

the other being in control of secondary educational 
affairs. These bureaus perform the functions usually 
devolving upon such offices, the work being largely 
clerical. In addition there are the diocesan directors 
{Stift Direktorer) bearing the immediate responsibili- 
ties in primary education, and a state educational com- 
mission (Undervisningsraad) having large authority in 
secondary education. 

Next to the department itself the school directors 
have authority over primary education. In fact the 
director has all but complete control in his territory 
even though the department is recognized as having 
the higher authority or powers. The King's cabinet 
appoints seven directors for the six dioceses into which 
the state is divided; two for the most northern, because 
of its greater extent, and one for each of the other five. 
The directors are paid by the state and are amenable 
only to the state, hence they exercise their powers 
in an endeavor to effect the best possible results edu- 
cationally without fear or favor of local influences. 
They act independently in their respective territories 
and do not constitute a committee in any sense what- 
ever. 

The commission having chief oversight of secondary 
education consists of seven men appointed by the 
King's cabinet. They are chosen because of their 
efficiency in educational affairs without regard to the 
part of the country to which they belong.* They work 
always as a committee, and as experts serve the state 

* Some are always appointed from outside the city of Christ- 
iania. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 53 

for the general welfare of secondary education. The 
many privileges and duties exercised by this commis- 
sion may be grouped together under the heads of in- 
spection and supervision of secondary schools, and ar- 
rangements for having examinations. Several of the 
men constituting this commission are at the same time 
rectors of leading secondary schools in the country. 
In fact they are chosen because of their familiarity with 
and expertness in just such kind of work. When it 
becomes necessary to seek advice in hygienic questions 
a physician of recognized ability is added to the com- 
mission. His judgment and instruction are respected 
and adhered to very closely. 

The rural communes are divided into school districts 
or circles {Skolekredser) . Each district supports and 
maintains a primary school with at least two divisions — 
an infant school (Smaaskole) for children from seven 
to ten years of age, and a higher one designed for chil- 
dren from ten to fourteen years of age. In districts 
where distances are great or roadways difficult, two or 
more infant schools are provided. 

Companies operating one or more manufacturing 
establishments or industrial concerns, and generally 
employing thirty or more laborers, are required to 
provide a primary school for the children of the men in 
their employ. When once started these schools are to 
be kept up unless the number of the employed is re- 
duced below twenty. In case there are other children 
who desire to attend such school, they shall have the 
right to do so providing it does not interfere with the 
instruction of those for whom the school was estab- 



54 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

lished. In return for this the school treasury receives 
from the communal treasury a yearly amount pro- 
portioned to the total cost for all pupils in the school.* 
While the law requires that instruction shall be pro- 
vided six days in the week for at least twelve weeks each 
year, it also grants to the communes the privilege of 
extending the time to fifteen weeks, f It further pro- 
vides the right to maintain six weeks additional, vol- 
untary instruction each year, f These privileges are 
generally taken advantage of by both communes and 
pupils. The communes desire the extension of time 
for school, and the pupils are very glad of the oppor- 
tunity to attend the extra time, even though their pres- 
ence is not compulsory. In fact the compulsory educa- 
tion law has been so rigidly enforced for so long a time 
that regular attendance has become habitual, and the 
exact provisions and requirements of the law are rarely 
thought of by the pupils. There is, in reality, no law 
requiring children to attend the schools provided by 
the state, but a certain amount of education is obliga- 
tory. It is mandatory that schools be maintained ip 
all of the districts, but individual children may receive 
their instruction in private schools if they choose, so 
long as educational requirements are met from year to 
year. Pupils who belong to the schools are required 
to be in attendance regularly, and children who receive 
instruction elsewhere than in the state schools must 
meet the requirements calculated to bring them to a 
certain educational standard by the time they are fif- 

* Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 42. 
t Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 5. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 55 

teen years of age. Failure in this subjects parents, 
guardians, and those providing schools for children of 
laborers in their employ to fine or imprisonment.* 

The work in the infant school includes or amounts 
to thirty lessons per week while in the higher one there 
are thirty-six lessons. Accordingly, the pupils in the 
lower grades receive a minimum of three hundred sixty 
lessons a year, and this number may be increased to 
four hundred fifty or six hundred thirty. In the higher 
grades they have at least four hundred thirty-two les- 
sons a year, and if the time is extended they have five 
hundred forty or seven hundred fifty-six lessons a year. 

Each rural commune has its own school board 
(Skolestyret) consisting of a priest; the chairman of the 
municipal council; one or two teachersf chosen by the 
body of teachers; as many other members (men or 
women) as the communal council deems it advisable to 
select; and the rectors of higher schools, if there be any, 

* Gathered from Law for Rural Schools, Sections 5, 15, 16, 
56, 57, and 59. 

t In communes where the number of regular teaching positions 
in the primary schools is fifteen or over, of which at least five are 
positions for females, one male and one female teacher occupying 
regular posts are chosen. In commimes where the number of posi- 
tions is under fifteen, one male or female teacher occupying a 
regular post is chosen. Where a male and a female teacher are to 
be chosen, the elections take place in separate meetings of the male 
and the female teachers, each selecting its representative; in the 
other communes election takes place m a common meeting. Elec- 
tion is for two years. The meetings are conducted by the chairman 
of the school board. Schools provided and sustained by the owners 
of industrial concerns within the communes may each be represented 
in the meetings of the school board, by an owner of such establish- 
ment, while matters pertaining to the school in which he is interested 
are being considered. Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 47. 



56 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

under the supervision and inspection of the school* 
board. 

In the towns and cities the school board consists of 
at least one priest*; a member of the city's executive 
council ;t as many other members chosen for three years 
as the municipal council deems it advisable to select, 
at least half of whom must be chosen from among par- 
ents who at the time of election have children in the 
city primary schools; one or two teachers;! and, wher- 
ever the school board controls higher schools, the rectors 
of such schools. 

The members of the school board select their own 
chairman and act together as a committee or board. 
Among its more important duties are appointment of 
teachers and special committees, provision of course of 
study with specific instructions regarding its presenta- 
tion, and the estimation of sums of money necessary to 
meet demands in the maintenance of the schools for the 

* The law provides that there shall be on the school board a 
priest for each pastorate within the commune, though not to exceed 
three. In all cases of necessity the bishop having direction of church 
affairs in the locality appoints the ministerial members of the board. 
Their appointments are for three years. 

t The executive board of the communal council each year 
elects one of its members to act on the school board for one year. 

I In cities where the number of regular teaching positions is 
fifteen or more there are elected one male and one female teacher; 
and in cities where the number of regular teaching positions is less 
than fifteen, but at least five, one male or one female teacher. In 
cases where two teachers are elected, the sexes separate, each select- 
ing its own representative; but where only one is elected they all 
meet together and choose one of their number. Election is for two 
years. The meetings are conducted by the chairman of the school 
board. 

The above notes are from: Law for City Schools, Sec. 40. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 57 

year. This estimate of expenses is sent by the board 
each year to the communal council which has charge of 
the dispensing of finances for the commune. 

The course of study, including the plan of instruction 
and directions regarding the supervision of the schools as 
given by the board, is minutely detailed and specifically 
stated. It includes a list of studies to be pursued, the 
manner and order of their presentation, and the num- 
ber of hours per week to be devoted to each subject; 
an outline of arrangements for entrance, promotion, 
and leaving examinations, with provisions for exemp- 
tion therefrom wherever such is deemed advisable; all 
necessary arrangements for vacations; and other 
matters considered essential in the maintenance and 
carrying on of a school. 

For each primary school, or for the several schools, 
using the same building, the board appoints a com- 
mittee of inspection (Tilsynsutvalg) . This committee 
consists of a member of the school board (chosen by the 
board), who is chairman of the committee, and three 
other members. These latter members are chosen in 
the city by the parents of children attending the school, 
and in the rural districts by such parents and other 
taxpayers. A priest appointed by church authority 
is added to committees serving town or city schools. 

This committee of inspection exercises constant over- 
sight of the school, keeping the board informed with 
reference to all matters requiring attention by that 
body. By the consent of the communal council this 
committee may have an amount provided from the 
school funds for its use in carrying out its work. The 



58 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

inspection is with special reference to the physical and 
moral well-being of those connected with the institu- 
tion. Among the special objects of its endeavors may 
be enumerated the solving of all hygienic questions, 
regular attendance, good discipline, and proper moral 
conduct. The committee must also see to it that chil- 
dren of school age, not in attendance at the state prim- 
ary schools, receive instruction in such quantity and 
of such quality as to meet all state requirements. In 
general it is an outstretched arm of the school board, 
feeling after the betterment of the common schools in 
every possible direction. 

Another committee (called the school committee — 
Skoleraad) is appointed by the school board for each of 
the primary schools in the city. The duties of the two 
committees are in a way complementary. While the 
committee of inspection is occupied in matters external 
in large measure, the school committee exercises func- 
tions more pedagogical in nature, though it also has 
general watch care over the affairs of the school. If 
there be a superintendent of schools {Skoleinspehtor) , he 
is a member ex officio of the school committee, and its 
chairman. Under other conditions the school board 
designates which of the appointed members of the 
committee shall be its chairman. In towns where the 
number of teachers exceeds sixty, the school board may 
direct that the school committee shall consist of the 
superintendent and the principals of the several schools 
as ex officio members and any determined number of 
other teachers selected by the body of teachers. The 
elected members are to be male and female in propor- 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 59 

tion to their respective numbers on the teaching staff, 
exclusive of those who are ex officio members of the 
committee. The sexes separate into special meetings 
for the purpose of election, each choosing its allotted 
number of representatives. Election is for two years, 
one-half retiring each year, the first time according to 
lot. Members whose terms expire are required to 
serve longer in case of re-election. This school com- 
mittee holds regular meetings, according to its own ap- 
pointment, at which the members are required to be 
present. Furthermore, the chairman may call addi- 
tional meetings in cases of necessity, and he is required 
to call special meetings when requested by the school 
board to do so. A majority vote of the members is 
sufficient for the passage of any proposition. While 
the duties of this committee are not specifically out- 
lined, it is intended that its work shall concern chiefly 
the internal workings of the schools. Its functions are 
mainly pedagogical in character as already stated and 
as evidenced in the following provisions in the law. 
"The school board shall permit the school committee 
to voice its opinions in every affair which concerns: 
(1) the general supervision of primary schools, (2) gen- 
eral provisions concerning regulations and discipline, 
and (3) text books and outlines of instruction." In 
addition the committee is required to express itself re- 
garding any matter relating to the good of the school 
when asked by the board for advice. 

The school board may also order that there be a 
teachers' commission {Laererraad) for each school or 
for the several schools using the same buildings, con- 



60 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

sisting of the teachers in the school. The chairman 
of this committee is the superintendent of schools, a 
school principal, or other member, according to the 
determination of the board. The duties devolving 
upon this commission are in each case outlined by the 
board. 

The superintendent of schools (Skoleinspektor) has 
general direction of all the primary schools in the city 
system. His duties are similar to those of the superin- 
tendent in American towns and cities. He takes the 
lead in directing the policies of the schools and exer- 
cises large powers in making them efficient. He is 
provided with well-equipped offices, generally in one 
of the school buildings, where he and his clerks, sup- 
plied by the school board, do the greater portion of their 
work. 

A principal or headmaster (Overlaerer) is generally 
placed in charge of each school. His duties are com- 
parable to those performed by ward principals in the 
United States. While the superintendent is the 
superior officer and exercises general control and author- 
ity, the principal has immediate charge of the work 
of the school. He controls its activities in harmony 
with and under the direction of the superintendent, 
consulting the wishes of the higher official and respect- 
ing his opinions. The superintendent recognizes that 
for the one in immediate charge of a school to have his 
hands tied or his liberties too circumscribed means the 
hampering of the work; hence, he gives to the principals 
working under him wide latitude in carrying out their 
ideas. For example, if the principal is a believer in 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 61 

coeducation or, on the other hand, a staunch advocate 
of segregation of the sexes for instructional purposes, he 
is usually privileged to carry his policy into execution 
in his school, even though the views of the superin- 
tendent are not wholly in accord therewith. Through- 
out their work they seek each other's counsel and ad- 
vice, and cooperate successfully. 

The private citizen in Norway plays only an indirect 
part in school affairs, yet his interests are conserved 
in various ways. The local pastor, who is a member 
ex officio of the school board, generally guards the in- 
terests of the masses. His influence and vote may be 
regarded usually as a reflection of the popular mind. 
The chairman of the municipal council, who also is a 
member of the board by virtue of his position, is in- 
directly the choice of the people. The teacher or 
teachers chosen to occupy on the school board nearly 
always work in harmony with the public will. The 
committee of inspection has a majority of its members 
chosen directly by vote of the people immediately con- 
cerned. The press is free and educational movements 
are continually discussed in the leading papers. Fur- 
ther than this, educational affairs are common topics of 
conversation, being talked of on all occasions under 
various circumstances and conditions. It may be 
said to their credit that those discussing these subjects 
do so inteUigently and critically. The masses are 
alive to the educational situation, are intensely in- 
terested in their schools, and are acquainted with the 
provisions of the law concerning them. The people 
being so democratic in tendency and so very frank m 



62 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

the expression of their feeUngs and opinions, naturally 
reflect public sentiment; which because of being under- 
stood has more weight and is correspondingly a greater 
factor in legislative activities. 

The primary schools receive their financial support 
from the state, county, and commune. The state pro- 
vides for city schools one-third of straight salaries, 
which range between twelve hundred and fourteen 
hundred crowns for men, and between eight hundred 
and nine hundred crowns for women; two- thirds of 
additional salary paid because of long service to the 
limit of eight hundred crowns per year for men and five 
hundred crowns per year for women; and one- third of 
salaries paid for positions requiring only part time, for 
teaching by the hour, and for teaching in continuation 
schools. In certain cases where the treasuries are 
depleted the state treasury furnishes as high as forty- 
five per cent of teachers ' salaries within the fixed limits 
mentioned above. In the rural communes the grant 
received from the state amounts to forty-five per cent 
of the teachers' salaries, and where finances are low 
this amount may be increased to sixty per cent. The 
amount of this state grant is figured on the basis of 
salaries that do not exceed twenty-four crowns per week 
in the second or higher division, and nineteen crowns in 
the first or infant division of the primary school, ex- 
cept in the county of Finmarken where the bases may 
be respectively twenty-eight crowns and twenty-two 
crowns per week. 

In each county (Ami) the county council provides 
funds for the following purposes: raising teachers' 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 63 

salaries in case of long service, erecting school build- 
ings, supplying teachers' homes, paying substitute 
teachers, purchasing apparatus, relieving communes 
and municipalities where school expenses are dis- 
proportionately high, and maintaining continuation 
and artisan schools. Whatever is required to defray 
the expenses of the primary schools, in addition to 
state and county grants, tuition, receipts from school 
lands or holdings, etc., is furnished by the commune 
or municipality through its council. 

The secondary schools are either state or communal. 
The state schools are provided with grounds, buildings, 
and equipment by the communes in which they are 
located; the remaining expenses are met by state grants, 
tuition fees, etc. The expense of maintaining com- 
munal schools falls largely upon the communes. The 
state furnishes one-third of the salaries in both classes 
of schools, and all additional amounts paid to teachers 
because of long service. While most of the secondary 
schools charge regular tuition fees, all of them have 
funds which supply free scholarships to a number of 
pupils each year. In some communes they have been 
able already to provide free middle schools, and it 
appears at least possible that all state and communal 
schools may sometime be free. The aim in financing 
the school system is to equalize the burden of expense 
as far as possible, and to recognize, at the same time, 
the efforts of those directly concerned. In order to ob- 
tain the best results, authority has been strongly cen- 
tralized; school boards, communal and county councils, 
and state oflScials exercise large discretionary powers. 



64 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

VI. BUILDINGS AND GROUNDS 

The school buildings of Norway are justly reputed 
to be the most magnificent, best located, and finest 
edifices of the country. They are built of substantial 
materials according to attractive architectural designs, 
and are provided with liberal equipment. The larger 
buildings are usually constructed of stone, brick and 
stone, or brick and cement; while the smaller ones are 
built of lumber and stone. In the erection of build- 
ings, great care is exercised to make them spacious and 
permanent. All materials used are selected because of 
their durability and suitability to purpose. In order 
to guarantee the best hygienic conditions, the law pro- 
vides that buildings must meet the approval of experts 
in hygiene before they can be used for school purposes. 
This means that the services of these experts must be 
secured in getting out designs for school buildings, 
whether in the erection of new or the remodeling of old 
ones. 

The school buildings are heated by furnaces or stoves. 
The newer ones are modem in every respect and, of 
course, have excellent heating systems. Those which 
have done service for several decades are usually heated 
by stoves. 

The buildings are divided into rooms in such a man- 
ner that the daylight nearly always enters from the 
left or the rear of the pupils when they are seated at 
their desks. This rule is disregarded only in rare cases. 
During the short days of winter it is essential to provide 
artificial light. In cities and large towns they use 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 65 

electricity for lighting the school buildings; in the coun- 
try or in small towns, where the municipalities do not 
maintain any central lighting plant, various devices 
are installed. Sometimes gasoline is used and again 
ordinary oil lamps are common. An abundance of 
light of the best procurable quality is generally pro- 
vided. 

Besides admitting light the outside windows are of 
use in providing ventilation for the school rooms. 
They are opened wide during intermissions between 
classes, so that when the children come in from their 
exercise on the play grounds they enter an atmosphere 
nearly as pure and fresh as that out of doors. In ad- 
dition, many schoolliouses, especially those built re- 
cently, have regular ventilating devices. 

The class room furniture in Norway, like that used 
in many other European schools, is about as primitive 
in design and lacking in attractiveness as anything found 
in the whole country. Its evolution surely has been 
greatly retarded. In each room there is a small plat- 
form high enough to enable the instructor to see all 
his pupils with ease. On this platform is a desk and a 
high chair in which the teacher sits most of the time 
while giving instruction. 

The pupils' seats and desks are made of heavy 
lumber and attached to a common base. This makes 
them clumsy, and they appear very queer to one ac- 
customed to the l.etter designs now in use in some coun- 
tries. Those of recent make are for but one pupil, 
though older ones, some of which are still in use, ac- 
commodate three or four. In construction the seat 



66 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

is generally a solid flat bench with a low back. The 
desk has a slightly sloping top, a small inconvenient 
shelf for books, and a receptacle for pencils, pens, rulers, 
and other articles used by school children. The Nor- 
wegians deserve commendation for the care exercised 
in the arrangement of seats and desks. The distance 
and proportion between them are regulated according 
to scientific principles looking to the physical welfare 
of the occupants. The bodily posture of children in 
school determines in large measure what it will be out 
of school. Far too little attention has been given the 
physical side of education, and one of the important 
problems in connection there vvith is the proper con- 
struction of school-room furniture. 

In the smaller buildings, classrooms have commo- 
dious cupboards for apparatus (maps, charts, globes, 
plates, etc.), and various things with which the chil- 
dren work (sewing materials, exercise books, etc.). 
While they have a liberal supply of excellent illus- 
trative material and teaching apparatus and the best 
of facilities for storing it, mechanical appliances for 
its display and devices for its convenient use are woe- 
fully lacking. Maps and charts are held in the hand 
or hung on a nail or other fixture in the room; while 
globes and the like are placed on chairs or improvised 
stands. In general the apparatus is awkward to 
manipulate and as a result much of its value is lost. 

Blackboards of proper size are very rare in the schools 
of Norway. As a rule the board is about three by 
five feet in size and fastened to a clumsy easel which 
elevates it so high that it is out of reach of the pupils. 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 67 

To enable the children to use such a board a small 
platform is provided. The child mounts the platform 
by means of a few steps and there stands and does his 
blackboard work. In only one instance did the writer 
during his visits to the schools find what appeared to 
him to be an adequate amount of blackboard space. 
This exceptional condition was in one of the primary 
schools where special equipment was installed for the 
instruction of children below normal intelligence. 
The ample provision of blackboard here is proof of a 
recognition of its value, and the situation may also 
be regarded as an indictment against the prevalent 
neglect in this line. 

School room decorations are not as prominent as 
might be expected. Despite the facts that the whole 
of Norway is picturesque, that her artists are quite 
numerous, and that the masses of her people are more 
than ordinarily appreciative of the finer phases of life, 
very few paintings or pieces of sculpture adorn her 
schools. True, exceptions as to this rule of scant pro- 
vision of the artistic may be found; but, as in all coun- 
tries, they quite generally fail to appreciate the educa- 
tive values of art. 

While, traditionally at least, the study and recita- 
tion rooms have been considered of prime and greatest 
importance in school buildings, there are others, ac- 
cessory to them, which in their effects are productive 
of quite as good results. Among them may be men- 
tioned: offices, teachers' rooms, libraries, laboratories, 
and other rooms for special purposes. Some of these 



68 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

are not provided in all schools, but commonly all of 
them are found in the city school buildings. 

The offices for rectors, inspectors, head masters, 
etc., are admirably arranged and handsomely appoint- 
ed. They are provided with desks, cabinets, chairs, 
settees, tables, and other furnishings which add to 
convenience and comfort. The rooms for teachers 
are equipped and furnished in a way just as suitable 
to their purpose. In these they spend their vacant 
periods in study, reading, or in leisure, according to 
their choice. Here, too, officers and teachers are 
served with Imicheons in the middle of forenoon and 
afternoon sessions. 

There are libraries in nearly all school buildings. 
While many of them are small some are of large conse- 
quence. The one in the Christiania Cathedral School 
numbers thirty thousand volumes. This is one of the 
oldest and perhaps the largest library in any school 
of the country, and it is regarded with considerable 
justifiable pride. 

The laboratories are furnished in harmony with 
their traditional plan of instruction. Instead of having 
a supply of apparatus so that most or all of the pupils 
may be occupied simultaneously in laboratory experi- 
mentation, they have but one set of instrumeats. 
However, they do furnish liberal quantities of materials 
for laboratory experimentation. The teacher is the 
chief operator, one or -two pupils assist in the work, 
and the other members of the class are onlookers. 

Where domestic arts are taught, rooms are fitted up 
especially for the purpose. Stoves, cooking utensils, 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 69 

and many other necessary articles are at hand ready 
for use. The efficiency of the work is in no wise hin- 
dered by lack of supplies. In many instances teachers 
go themselves to the markets and purchase provisions 
needed for the day. An earnest effort is made to com- 
bine theory and practice in proportions suitable to ob- 
taining the best possible results. 

Some of the larger buildings have special rooms for 
the storing of apparatus and illustrative materi- 
als {Anskuelsesmidler) . Racks, cupboards, cabinets, 
drawers, cases, and the like provide convenient means 
for preserving these supplies and of rendering them 
easily accessible. Gymnastic halls and lunch rooms 
will be discussed in another section. 

The playgrounds are generally small, but some of the 
schools have, in addition to the grounds immediately 
surrounding the buildings, athletic parks of consider- 
able proportions. The grounds about the school 
buildings are arranged with a view of securing from 
them maximum returns. They are enclosed by high 
board or wire fence, or by stone or brick and cement 
walls. A heavy coating of gravel is usually placed on 
the ground in order to avoid the growth of vegetation 
or an accumulation of dust. "Keep off the grass" 
signs are not in evidence, for rarely do they attempt to 
have grassy lawns. 

They recognize the need and value of physical exer- 
cise in the open, and provide means for it in connection 
with every school. It is specifically required that all 
pupils go on to the playgrounds during the intermis- 
sions {Jri Kvarterer) which come between all lessons. 



70 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

While the children are at play one or more of the 
teachers are detailed to supervise the grounds, while 
others are to patrol the hallways. Large roofs are put 
up under which the children play when the weather is 
not favorable to being in the open. On rare occasions 
when the weather is bitter, pupils may be permitted 
to remain indoors. Children whose health is ex- 
tremely delicate are dealt with in leniency, and some 
of them are permitted to remain inside regularly. 

Near to the school buildings, generally on a corner 
of the grounds, homes are provided for the head master 
or principal and the janitor {V agtmester) . Sometimes 
the janitor and his family live in an apartment in the 
school building. Generally, however, a double house 
is erected, one part for the principal and the other for 
the janitor. These homes are furnished rent free to 
these men. 

Teachers in rural districts, as a rule, are supplied 
with a house and sufficient ground for garden and the 
pasturage of two or three cows. These provisions ma- 
terially reduce living expenses, and, in a way, recom- 
pense for the low salaries received. In one rural school 
the writer found three hundred and fifty pupils taught 
in two divisions — forenoon and afternoon sessions — 
by six teachers. The principal had been in charge of 
the school forty- three years. One portion of the school 
building provided a residence for him and his family. 
They had a small garden; a fruit orchard; a few acres 
of land for pasturage and hay; and a barn and sheds 
for cow, pig, and chickens. There are many similar 
situations throughout the country. This particular 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 71 

one lay just outside a small city, and this fact accounts 
in part for the large number of pupils in attendance. 

As a rule the homes for rural school teachers com- 
pare very favorably with the better class of homes in 
the surrounding neighborhood. They have sufficient 
room, are comfortable, and generally satisfy the oc- 
cupants. The majority of rural teachers have such 
homes provided, though only a few city teachers enjoy 
this favor. In 1905, two thousand, eight hundred 
and twenty-six rural teachers had homes furnished 
them free of cost. 



VII. GENERAL FEATURES OF INNER ORGANIZATION 

Most of the teachers in the rural primary schools are 
men, while the majority of them in the city are women. 
During the year 1907 there were four thousand, one 
hundred and twenty-three male and one thousand, 
four hundred and seven female teachers occupying reg- 
ular positions in the rural schools, and in the city their 
numbers were respectively eight hundred and twenty- 
eight and one thousand, six hundred and six. Although 
the law makes no requirements as to sex, except that 
in city schools there must be at least one master and 
one governess, there are certain forces operative which 
almost equal edicts of law. Traditionally, teachers in 
the rural schools are men and, as previously stated, 
homes are provided for them and their families. Ap- 
pointments to teaching positions are permanent. 
Teachers remain in their places until death removes 



72 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

them or until they choose to retire on pension, which is, 
all too often, long after they pass the time of their 
efficiency. It is difficult to break with the old customs 
and hence the entrance of women teachers into the rural 
school positions has been slow. In the cities the con- 
ditions are different. There only a small percentage 
of the teachers have homes furnished them, the number 
of teaching positions without supervising responsibility 
is large, and the salaries paid to women are lower than 
those paid to men. As a consequence the female 
teachers have found easy entrance into the city schools, 
and at present they outnumber the men two to one. 
Women have been teaching since 1869, and the people 
are convinced that their ability as teachers is equal to 
that of the sterner sex. 

In the secondary schools, also, the majority of the 
instructors are men. In the gymnasia practically all 
of them are men, but in the middle schools there are 
many women teachers. Even though the Norwegians 
recognize woman's ingenuity and efficiency in teaching 
small children, they have not yet become couverted 
to the idea that she is man 's equal in the more advanced 
educational fields. It seems probable that tradition 
is the chief hindrance to the entrance of women into 
teaching positions in the gymnasia. 

In their plan of instruction there is much to commend 
and some things to criticise. The teachers do a large 
amount of teaching, but they also provide opportunity 
for the children to do a great deal on their own initia- 
tive, so that they too may know the joy of discovery 
and feel the triumph of mastery. The Norwegian 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 73 

pedagogue uses the recitation period, nearly always 
fifty minutes, in an endeavor to impart information, 
both directly and indirectly; directly by straightfor- 
ward giving, and indirectly through cooperative mental 
activities. While they feel the importance of direct 
instruction, they see, also, the advantage in shifting 
a part of the responsibility to the pupils. They recog- 
nize the fact that the child has ability, and that by 
himself he is capable of finding and recognizing prob- 
lems, and of working them out to satisfying conclu- 
sions. They appreciate that even a small child is able 
to carry out many educative activities with a minimum 
of direction from the teacher, and that the development 
which comes from this self-direction and initiative is 
one of the most valuable ends of education. The in- 
tent is that the class period shall be devoted to exercises 
which will furnish information and, at the same time, 
make the children independent and able to direct 
themselves. 

Though the ideals and aims are excellent, the means 
for attaining them are not the best. There is a certain 
inherited aloofness on the part of the instructor which 
robs both teacher and pupils of some of the values 
which come from closer association. During the recita- 
tion hour the teacher nearly always occupies the high 
chair on the elevated platform, except while using the 
blackboard or doing other demonstrational work. My 
observations convince me that the teachers, especially 
the men, do not get down and work among and with the 
children as much as seems essential to the accomplish- 
ment of the greatest good. 



74 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Now the discipline and character of recitations also 
deserve attention. When a pupil is called upon to re- 
cite, he is expected to pass to the aisle and there stand 
erect until the recitation is completed. Only in rare 
cases are children allowed to sit while reciting. I have 
seen children only eleven or twelve years of age called 
to the front of the room to analyze and develop a prob- 
lem. The smallest children are required to give only 
short answers to questions, but responses rapidly in- 
crease in length, as age advances, until they amount 
to minute and extended discussions of topics. Recita- 
tions lasting ten to fifteen minutes are not uncommon, 
and the children become quite expert in the relation of 
facts and in the development of problems presented. 
This method of procedure is perhaps all right for a cer- 
tain class of children, but timid boys and girls are some- 
times embarrassed to the extent that they are unable 
to do credit to themselves, their teachers, or the lessons. 
On one occasion I saw a boy who was so frightened in 
an attempt to stand and recite, being required at the 
same time to look into the face of a complaining teacher, 
that he was unable to say anything whatever. The 
teacher, a man of advanced age, finally awoke to the 
situation, and placing his hand on the boy's head, 
talked to him about the lesson until he calmed the lad 's 
fears and obtained a very satisfactory response from 
him. 

In addition to classroom activities connected with 
mental growth, considerable work is done looking to 
physical development. Gymnastic exercise is required 
of all children in primary and secondary schools, ex- 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 75 

cepting those in first and second grades and a few who 
are physically disqualified for it. To provide for this 
work, the city schools furnish large halls with excellent 
equipment, and special teachers to give instruction. 
A Swedish system of gymnastics is in vogue throughout 
the country. There seems to be no criticism against 
the system, and the benefits testify emphatically to 
its efficiency. The apparatus is simple and inexpensive, 
but the variety of movements and the numberless com- 
binations of them seem to answer every demand. 

Certain conditions and customs prevailing m Nor- 
way make it necessary to serve lunches at the school 
buildings. The morning sessions are long and the din- 
ner hour is far later than noon — generally two or three 
o 'clock. Furthermore, many children of poor parentage 
come to school underfed. Opportunity to obtain 
a light lunch of nourishing food and a warm drink at 
about 10:30 or 11 o'clock is an appreciated necessity. 
Hence most buildings have lunch rooms arranged and 
equipped according to local demands. Here, in the 
secondary schools, the family of the janitor furnishes 
rolls, buns, cakes, cocoa, coffee, milk, etc., at a reason- 
able rate. As stated before, the teachers have lunches 
served in their own rooms. Some cities provide chil- 
dren in the primary schools with one meal of whole- 
some food each day of school during the winter months — 
generally from the middle of October until the first of 
May. This is free to the needy children, and others 
obtain it at first cost. 

In Christiania they have a central kitchen from 
which the city primary schools receive supplies. This 



76 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

kitchen has a capacity for steam cooking, ten thousand 
Hters at a time. Only the best food is purchased. 
This is carefully prepared and delivered every day in 
tightly sealed cans to the several schools where it is 
served hot. The maintenance of this kitchen is in 
answer to recommendations made by a committee, 
appointed by the school board, after visiting various 
similar European institutions and studying carefully 
into their operations. In equipment, management, 
and good results it is not surpassed in any city in 
Europe or America. In some of the schools, hundreds 
of free meals are dispensed every day throughout the 
long winter. During the year 1908-1909, from Octo- 
ber 19, 1908, to April 30, 1909, (one hundred and thirty- 
two days), the Christiania central kitchen furnished 
616,821 free meals and 77,733 meals which were paid 
for by children in the schools. This work stands as a 
testimonial to the beneficence of the people whose cir- 
cumstances enable them to maintain it. 

The discipline of the school borders on the military 
order. The pupils form in line and march in passing 
to and from class-rooms and playgrounds. While the 
work of instruction proceeds strict discipline is main- 
tained. Before entering a classroom where a recita- 
tion is in progress, one invariably knocks at the door, 
whoever he is and whatever his errand, and by the time 
he enters teacher and pupils are on their feet. Turn- 
ing to the one entering, they bow and continue to face 
him until he is seated, which is a signal to them to sit. 
Should the visitor withdraw before the class is dismissed, 



BACKGROUND AND ORGANIZATION 77 

the pupils again rise to their feet and bow him out; 
but, if he remains until they are dismissed, they bow 
to him before taking their departure. Every activity 
indoors and out of doors is closely supervised, and the 
control exercised over the pupils is praiseworthy. 

Attendance at school is regular in all grades. When 
children are absent for any reason the case is inquired 
into without delay, and, unless satisfactory excuse or 
explanation is forthcoming, the truant officers are on 
hand to enforce regulations. Failure to comply with 
the laws regarding absence from school, subjects par- 
ents or guardians of children to a fine of from one to 
twenty-five crowns.* Very rarely is an enforcement 
of these laws necessary, for the people are generally law- 
abiding and peace-loving. Being eager for develop- 
ment, they gladly comply with educational provisions 
without any compulsion, and regularity in attendance 
is the universal practice. Sickness is perhaps the most 
common excuse given for absence and, since excellent 
health is characteristic of the people, this is infrequent. 

Pupils are nearly always healthy, vigorous, and ro- 
bust. One of the chief points calling attention to this 
is the rarity of cases where glasses are worn. In visit- 
ing schools I noticed that spectacled children were very 
few. I was at first inclined to criticise what I inter- 
preted to be neglect of the eyes, but soon found that 
eyesight, as well as the general health of the children, 
was being carefully guarded. Every school has its 

* Law for Rural Schools, Sec. 15. A crown is equal to about 
twenty-seven cents. 



78 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

physician whose duty it is to regulate sanitation and to 
remedy physical defects of children. I ascertained 
that in some schools special examinations had been 
conducted for the testing of eyesight, and results showed 
that very few of the pupils were under the necessity 
of wearing glasses. Among the causes contributing 
to this favorable situation may be mentioned a health- 
ful climate, regular drill in gymnastics, proper lighting 
of school rooms, good ventilation, physical exercise 
in the open between successive classes, and, in general, 
the maintenance of a high state of physical vigor. The 
Norse take justifiable pride in their physical develop- 
ment, and they pay considerable attention to this phase 
of education. Consequently the children are able to 
attack the strenuous activities of school life with vim, 
and mastery of the course of study is not a hardship. 



Chapter II 
TEACHERS 

I. QUALIFICATIONS AND CERTIFICATION 

TEACHING is a profession in Norway. 
Those following it have chosen it as their 
life work. The people thus engaged deserve 
and receive the recognition, confidence, and 
esteem of the masses, and they maintain the dignity of 
their calling. As a class they rank high educationally, 
morally, and professionally. With the advance in social 
ideals it has been necessary to raise the standards 
of preparation for teaching, and, as the years pass, fur- 
ther changes will be required. For a long time, pro- 
fessional training has been demanded of every appointee 
to a teaching position, and indications point to a rapid 
development of the quality of this training until every 
resource is operative. 

The law requires that to be eligible for appointment 
to a regular teaching position in the secondary schools 
(middle school and gymnasium), one must have had 
a course in the university and special training provided 
in the pedagogical seminary. This means that the 
candidate has completed : (1) the twelve years of work 
in the primary and secondary schools, where a wide 

79 



80 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

range of instruction and general culture are provided; 
(2) a course in the university (four to seven years in 
length), devoted to exhaustive research in the particular 
branches of study which are subsequently to be taught; 
and (3) the course of training given in the pedagogical 
seminary. 

It is the aim and function of this seminary to provide 
for the university graduates who are to become teachers 
the most practical and complete professional training 
possible within the limits of time (six months). It is 
readily evident that excellence in educational equip- 
ment and intelligent insight into the business of teach- 
ing are among the accomplishments of the profession. 
In fact, mastery of the field to be taught and profes- 
sional training in its presentation are requisites. 

The certificates or diplomas issued upon completion 
of the preparatory work just outlined are the only cre- 
dentials required of the Norwegian teachers. Being 
issued by the state they have a standard of value which 
is uniform, recognized, and honored throughout the 
realm. Without these papers it would be folly to seek 
appointment to a fixed (permanent ) post. 

Besides the regular corps of instructors occupying 
on full time in the general lines of instruction, there are 
many special teachers devoting their energies along 
particular lines of work, such as home economics, draw- 
ing, music, gymnastics, and manual training; and still 
others who teach some of the regular branches of study 
only part time, whose positions are not permanent. 
Special preparation is required in order to obtain posi^ 
tions in these specific lines of work, 



TEACHERS 81 

II. TRAINING OF TEACHERS 

Norway early recognized the value of specific train- 
ing for the work of the teacher. The experiences of 
other nations served as object lessons illustrating the 
good coming from the services of properly equipped 
teachers and the dangers of proceeding without such. 
The state was eager to lay substantial foundations, to 
conserve and develop every resource, to build perma- 
nently and economically, and to profit by the experi- 
ences of other systems. Consequently, the people 
moved forward in a conservative manner and planned 
for the future as well as for immediate needs. 

Utilizing the strong points of other systems and 
adapting them to local conditions, the state established 
six teachers' seminaries, locating one in each of the six 
dioceses into which the country is divided, so that they 
would be within easy access of the people attending 
them. Besides these state seminaries, four private 
institutions, having almost identical functions, have 
been established and are flourishing. The private 
seminaries are located at vantage points not too close 
to the State Schools yet where they will be 
within reach of a large number of people. The favor- 
able location of these schools makes it possible for a 
large number of the attendants to live in their own 
homes, while the large majority need be but a short 
distance from their homes. 

The work of the teachers' seminaries is, of course, to 
provide special preparation for teaching in the schools 
throughout the nation. Their curricula are similar 



82 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

to those used in the secondary schools. The chief 
point of difference between them is the attitude taken 
toward the subjects of instruction. In the secondary 
schools the aim is general and in a large measure cul- 
tural, while in the seminaries the attempt is always 
to present the lesson or subjects of instruction in such 
a manner that the pupils shall get both intellectual 
development and the correct method of presentation. 
It is the intent that this experience shall help to qual- 
ify for the successful teaching of the subjects studied. 
The work corresponds closely with that done in the 
normal schools of America or similar teachers' schools 
in other lands. 

It is everywhere true that teachers teach as they 
have been taught. The principle of imitation is illus- 
trated clearly every day in every school room. Teach- 
ers, like pupils, follow example more closely than pre- 
cept. Providing schools designed to fit people for the 
teaching profession have ideal teachers, they will be 
able to turn out from year to year groups of teachers, 
who, imitating their masters, both in the application 
of scientific principles of method and in the exercise 
of individuality, will in turn become ideal teachers. 
If the curriculum and teaching of the training college 
are rich and varied, its products will be characterized by 
efficiency and resourcefuhiess. On the contrary, should 
the work of the school be narrow because of a cramped 
curriculum, or on account of biased and shrunken ideals 
of the faculty, the results will be unsatisfactory. The 
teachers who go out from such an institution will be 



TEACHERS 83 

unequal to the tasks awaiting them — they will be un- 
able to meet the situation in the educational field. 

Since it is a chief occupation of the training school to 
instill methods of presentation, there is great danger of 
becoming mechanical, machine-made, or stilted in one 
way or another. Quite the opposite must be the nature 
and work of the teacher. The teacher should be able 
to come down from the high platform and cooperate 
with the children; to find the individual child and his 
interests and, in a genuinely sympathetic spirit, to 
direct those interests; to discard set rules, hard and fast 
hues, and pet theories; and to open up to each child a 
vision of the fields before. In order to do these things 
the instructor must be thoroughly familar with child 
life: its nature, mental and physical make-up, pro- 
cesses of development, conditions of growth and acti- 
vity, instincts, and hopes. He must also cherish and 
manifest a sympathetic attitude towards youthful 
tendencies and aspirations, and be able to inspire the 
pupils to noble purposes. 

The seminaries of Norway, like those of other nations, 
fall short of some of the conditions of excellence that 
we yearn for. They do not include a sufficient amount 
of professional training nor is that which is provided 
always the ideal type. Nevertheless, an earnest effort 
is being put forth to approach these higher conditions 
as rapidly as possible. The course of three years, be- 
sides furnishing a valuable fund of instruction, provides 
a large amount of work in observation and extensive 
experience in teaching. The training in observation 
generally consists of work in connection with the state 



84 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

schools (primary and secondary) in the immediate 
vicinity of the seminary. Into these state schools the 
seminary pupils are permitted to go and ol)serve the 
teaching of the regularly employed instructors as they 
present the different subjects in the curriculum. After 
having observed teaching for some time and having 
carefully discussed class room procedure with their own 
teachers, they are required to specially prepare and 
present some lessons under the close, yet sympathetic 
scrutiny and supervision of their masters. As time 
passes, more and more of this practice teaching is as- 
signed until proficiency is attained in the presentation 
of subjects to be taught in subsequent years. While 
these schools do not mcorporate into their activities 
all things that seem important, it must be said to their 
credit that they have done a great service in qualifying 
teachers for the class of instruction which has already 
raised the masses to their present place of literary 
distinction. 

Besides the institutions providmg teachers' training 
above referred to, there was established in 1907 the 
Pedagogical seminary. This semmary is affiliated with 
the university in Christiania but is not an organic part 
of it. It was founded by act of the Storthing and is 
supported by the state. The function of the Peda- 
gogical Seminary is to provide professional training of 
an especially practical type for graduates of the uni- 
versity who intend to make teachmg their profession. 
The length of the course is six months. Instruction 
and training provided in this institution includes: (1) 
lectures in hygiene, psychology, history of education, 



TEACHERS 85 

and principles of education; (2) observation of class 
instruction by masters, whose teaching is the highest 
representation of the art in the city; (3) discussions, 
formal and informal, general and analytic, with the 
headmaster of the seminar^^ concerning methods of 
instruction, class conduct, and school management; 
and (4) practice teaching under the supervision of 
masters whose criticisms are given in such frank and 
sympathetic manner as to make them invaluable. 

As a rule, those trained in the teachers' seminaries 
are employed in the primary schools. The students 
who avail themselves of the advantages of a university 
education and follow it by the training provided in the 
Pedagogical Seminary generally become teachers in 
the secondary schools. The seminary training in gen- 
eral is of such character that it may be put into use im- 
mediately upon entrance into the work of teaching. 
It also renders vital and usable for purposes of instruc- 
tion the information and intellectual development 
gained during the long-continued and intensive school- 
ing preceding such training. 

III. teachers' official titles 

Throughout the school system of Norway teachers 
are given titles according to the nature of the positions 
occupied. In the primary school the man who does 
the supervising work (in America known as superin- 
tendent) is called the Inspektor; the head teacher or 
principal is termed the Overlaerer\ and the other 
teachers, male and female, are spoken of respectively 



86 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

as Laerer and Laererinde. In the middle school and 
gynmasium the titles are Rektor, Overlaerer, and Ad- 
junkt. The Rektor has the supervisory work and some 
teaching to do; the Overlaerer is one of the principal 
teachers who has been given the title and ranking, 
chiefly because of fitness and long service; and the 
Adjimkt is a regular teacher who has served the school 
for five years or more and has received permanent 
appointment. 

Titles do not correspond strictly to educational equip- 
ment nor do they depend wholly upon term of service, 
though both of these may be and generally are con- 
tributory factors. For example : positions in the mid- 
dle schools and gymnasia are open only to those who 
have certain educational fitness; the teachers with 
especially strong qualifications and superior ability 
are the ones most liable to receive early promotion to 
the higher class positions; and, when promotions are 
made, the persons who have taught for a long time en- 
joy some advantage over those with but slight experi- 
ence. Titles correspond more definitely to classes of 
positions occupied than to any other thing that can be 
named. When an individual is appointed to a position 
carrying a title, that designation is invariably used in 
connection with his name. He is no longer John John- 
son or Herr Johnson, but Rektor Johnson, Overlaerer 
Johnson, Inspektor Johnson, etc. 

IV. teachers' tenure of office 

The teacher's tenure of oflBce in Norway is very dif- 
ferent from what we are accustomed to in America. 



TEACHERS 87 

Positions are of two kinds — permanent and temporary. 
Nearly all appointments in the past have been to per- 
manent posts. This means that the individual oc- 
cupies his place without molestation or any hint of 
insecurity until he chooses to resign or until he reaches 
the age of retirement.* Some appointments now are 
to temporary positions though generally they lead to 
permanent ones. Rarely, if ever, does a person who 
makes reasonable success in a temporary position fail 
to secure an appointment to a permanent post. 

Permanency in position has a number of well-recog- 
nized advantages. Security of situation gives to the 
teacher a release from the uncertainty which constantly 
harasses the minds of so many where frequent change 
of position is the rule. A lasting appointment enables 
one to get a firm grasp on the local situation, and to 
utilize without waste all the momentum accumulated 
while occupying in a particular place. Furthermore, 
the teacher who feels settled in a position is able to estab- 
lish a home, and to become identified with the com- 
munity and its interest. 

Since teachers continue for so long a time in a posi- 
tion, they and their pupils become as well acquainted 
with each other as with members of a common family. 
It is interesting to note how minutely a teacher knows 
the daily life and habits of his pupils. While the rela- 
tions are not always the most congenial, they are known 
to be practically inevitable and impossible of escape 
so they each make the best of the situation and get the 
most out of it. 

* Law for Secondary Schools, Sec. 33. 



88 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Again, when children know that it will be their lot to 
come under the tuition of a certain instructor who oc- 
cupies a permanent post under state appointment, they 
work faithfully and usually eliminate any criticising 
attitude. In fact, long terms of service tend to inhibit 
the criticisms of both children and parents which some- 
times attend teachers who occupy positions but for a 
short time. The situation conduces to a condition of 
harmony and cooperative activity. The children in- 
stinctively feel the authority of the teacher. They 
know that he has the support of local and state authori- 
ties, and that they will cooperate with him in carrying 
forward his projects. The teacher, in turn, recognizes 
his responsibilities in the premises and endeavors to 
occupy acceptably. 

Now it is just as true that there are some disadvan- 
tages to permanency of positions. Teachers are apt 
to become non-progressive and in some cases, little 
more than fixtures. Change of environment stimulates 
progress and development. Variety in teaching ex- 
perience broadens the capabilities and increases the 
usefulness of teachers. In addition, children need the 
touch and influence of many lives. They receive great- 
er inspiration because of coming in contact with the 
personality of a large luunber of teachers. However, 
too frequent change is wasteful. It dissipates the 
energy of teachers and breaks the continuity of the 
work of the children. Where the permanency of posi- 
tions is absolutely uncertain, the teaching profession 
is transitory and dwindling. Only a few remain for 
long time in the work under such conditions. Many 



TEACHERS , 89 

efficient school men leave the profession annually be- 
cause of this discouragement. 

At present, the feeling appears to be general that 
permanency in position should be conditioned upon im- 
provement in efficiency. Evidently a re?ognition of 
this principle is a basic cause underlying the increase 
in number of appointments to temporary teaching 
positions. This procedure affords an excellent oppor- 
tunity for weeding out the unfit. At the same time it 
acts as a spur inducing growth and development. 
Progressive tendencies, along with other qualifications, 
are regarded necessary to appointment even to tem- 
porary posts, and, as implied before, success in such 
positions is a prerequisite to appointment to permanent 
ones. 

In America, teacher's tenure of office is very short. 
Each year there are many changes in the personnel of 
teachers throughout the country. Here we have the 
extreme of uncertainty, while in Norway they go to the 
limits of certainty in teaching positions. Both these 
extremes are unfortunate. Could a golden mean be 
reached which would include proper incentives to and 
recognition of continuous self-improvement and a 
reasonable sense of security in permanent occupation, 
the profession would call into its ranks a large and more 
efficient body of men and women, and the schools would 
make greater and more substantial progress. In order 
to illustrate the permanency of positions in Norway 
Table VI has been arranged. 



90 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



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TEACHERS 91 

It is immediately apparent that the charges in the 
body of teachers are rare. It is also evident that nearly 
all who leave the profession do so on legitimate grounds. 
A few changes result from transfers in position, a large 
per cent of withdrawals are retirements after extended 
periods of service, and many vacancies are due to death. 
Fifty per cent or more of the women who retire do so on 
account of marrying, a few die at their posts, and many 
retire on pensions. Very few of the women teachers 
retire to enter other lines of work. While the table 
does not indicate how much longer than thirty years 
some teachers remain in the service, it may be added 
here that examples are not rare where individuals con- 
tinue teaching for more than half a century. In most 
cases teachers occupy the same position throughout 
their teaching experience. 

V. teachers' salaries 

The salaries received by teachers do not average high 
in Norway. Many provisions are made, however, for 
the reduction of their living expenses. All those who 
serve the school authorities in Norway receive certain 
benefits appertaining to the positions they hold. For 
example: There is advance in salaries on promotions 
and after specified periods of service; teachers are ex- 
empt from expense incident to particular offices ; school 
authorities send all official communications through 
the mail free of postage; teachers receive pensions on 
retirement from positions; the rural school teachers 
frequently receive, in addition to their salary, a house 



92 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

to live in and sufficient land for the pasturage of two or 
three cows, and in towns and cities some of the teachers 
have homes provided, or are allowed a certain amount 
per year for living expenses. These and similar con- 
cessions and provisions are extended to the teachers 
according to enactments of the state, individual com- 
munes, or municipalities. Generally, a regular schedule 
is made out by which salaries are governed. Table VII 
indicates the salaries for different positions in eight 
cities of Norway : 

The table is made up from the salary schedules of 
typical cities of various sizes. The values are in kroner 
(one krone is practically the equivalent of twenty- seven 
cents in United States money). We note that salaries 
are medium in the beginning, and that they increase 
at regular intervals until certain limits are reached. 
When we consider these limiting salaries, the long ser- 
vice generally rendered at the highest rate, certainty 
of position, and the pension to be received upon re- 
tirement, we are prone to admit that the advantages 
are not altogether in favor of the higher salaries paid 
in our American schools. True, the American teacher 
generally receives larger returns in dollars and cents, 
but the Norwegian pedagogue is less mercenary than 
his American cousin. He is satisfied when his wants 
and those of his family are liberally provided for. His 
life is not strenuous. It is happy and filled with the 
joys of service and the companionship of youthful 
souls. Anxieties are in large measure overcome by the 
assurance that the state will provide necessities when 



TEACHERS 93 

the time for retirement comes. Pensions are graduated 
according to individual necessity as well as with refer- 
ence to position, term of service, and salary at the time 
of retirement. 



94 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 






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Chapter III 
COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 

I. INTRODUCTORY — RISE, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRESENT 
FORM OF THE CURRICULUM 

WE come now to a consideration of the 
course of study in the school system 
as it has evolved and is now operative. 
As was true throughout other parts of 
Europe, so in Norway, education during the middle 
ages issued almost exclusively from the cloister and 
cathedral schools {Dom-og Kathedral Skoler), and in 
them are found the germs of most modem courses of 
study. Inasmuch as the successive steps in the evolu- 
tion of the recent schools of Europe from the earlier 
forms vary but httle in the several countries, and since 
the subject is already familiar to nearly all students 
of education, we omit any technical discussion of that 
interesting feature of history, and refer the reader to 
any of the several works treating it fully. Suffice it 
to say, the aim of the church in maintaining these 
earlier schools centered in the development of a quali- 
fied clergy about whom should be gathered a loyal fol- 
lowing, well-trained in the dogmas, doctrines, and tradi- 
tions of the organization. 

96 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 97 

At this time the monk and a small company of disci- 
ples constituted the school. The little group studied 
together from day to day in and about the cloister or 
cathedral. Among them, very naturally, certain new 
thoughts and ideals sprung up. The masters saw the 
new developments if they were not themselves parties 
to them. As the newer thoughts became fixed in the 
youthful minds, individual interests pressed harder 
and harder still until provision was made for extending 
the work of instruction as well as for widening the scope 
of activities within the schools. While the aim was 
at first to give instruction and discipline in lines neces- 
sary to a clerical career, it changed by degrees until it 
included branches useful in legitimate occupations 
other than that of the clergy. However, the diversify- 
ing of school activities and the enrichment of the pro- 
gram of study did not keep pace with the changes that 
were taking place in other phases of the social cosmos. 
A spirit of unrest grew to proportions almost ungovern- 
able until the middle age renaissance in learning re- 
moved the fetters and brought relief by effecting sys- 
tems of education very fitting to the requirements. 
Great credit is due to the leaders in the Reformation for 
the part they played in placing means for instruction 
and education upon a more secure and permanent 
basis, and for the service they rendered in giving to 
the schools certain vitality that had rarely, if ever, 
been characteristic of any similar institution. 

The new type of school bore a stamp of general ap- 
proval which enabled it to gain a momentum which was 
not soon to be overcome. In fact, the schools of all the 



98 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

more civilized countries are still largely dominated by 
traditions dating back to the epoch-making works of 
such men as Erasmus, Luther, Melanchthon, and Sturm. 

Now the ideas of these famous educators were less 
subjected to change in Norway than in the centers from 
whence they came. Until the union between this coun- 
try and Denmark came to an end in 1814, very little 
thought was given to advancing educational interests 
in Norway. The work of her cathedral schools had 
been little improved during the centuries that had 
passed since their establishment. When at last Nor- 
way became a free constitutional state and these Norse- 
men breathed the air of freedom, felt the exhilaration 
of greater personal liberties, realized that their destiny 
was to be of their own making, and fully sensed their 
important responsibilities in the situation, they all, 
ecclesiasts and politicians, capitalists and laborers, 
combined in developing their schools in ways calculated 
to lift the masses to higher intellectual planes. The 
changes wrought were in relation to what was to be 
taught and to the extension of learning. An opportu- 
nity for instruction was given to every youth in the 
land. 

For a long time the ancient languages formed the 
bulk of higher learning, while in the primary schools 
only the rudiments of a few subjects were attempted. 
Social tendencies soon required an increase in the num- 
ber of branches to be taught, and also laid added weight 
upon the importance of such study as would be of bene- 
fit in vocational activities. Accordingly, mathematics, 
history, geography, and nature study became more 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 99 

prominent features in all schools. One of the best 
characteristics of the work throughout is that the 
mother-tongue has been at all times a dominating factor 
through every grade of their schools. Later in the pro- 
cess a demand for the modern foreign languages was 
responded to favorably and they took places in the 
curriculum of the higher school. These changes bring 
us down through the last century to the recent forms 
in courses of study and we shall introduce the reader 
immediately into the present situation. 

Besides the institutions for higher learning there are 
now three distinct sections in the school system of Nor- 
way, viz.: Primary School, Middle School, and Gymna- 
sium. The primary school is designed to provide edu- 
cation of an elementary type for every citizen of the 
country. By vital cooperation and the exercise of great 
care in organization, distribution, supervision, and in- 
spection of these schools, the people have overcome illit- 
eracy and have reduced truancy to a minimum — almost 
to a negligible factor. They are unitedly converted to 
the belief that an enlightened populace is a necessity to 
the continuity of desirable institutions, to the develop- 
ment of resources, and to the maintenance of worthy 
traditions. To secure for all the essentials of good and 
intelligent citizenship, an attempt has been made to 
have the curriculum for the primary schools include 
the branches of study which have meaning in every 
walk of life, and which enhance the efficiency of each 
citizen in his individual activities. In short, it is the 
intent that all the people shall have the more abundant 
life which comes with a thorough, general, elementary 



100 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

education; and, at the same time, that they shall be 
prepared for the higher schools which build on the broad 
foundation of the common school. 

Following the primary schools are the middle schools 
which lead still farther in the pathway of intellectual 
development those whose situation in life enables them 
to proceed with school work. Besides carrying for- 
ward the lines of study begun in the lower school with 
added vigor and exactitude, they include a large amount 
of work in foreign modem languages. Thus we see 
that this second section in the great institution of learn- 
ing fills in the elementary framework, enriches the 
fund of information, adds a considerable amount of cul- 
ture, and paves the way for the more liberal training 
to follow in the next section. 

The Gymnasium succeeds and builds directly upon 
the work of the middle school. Its function is to pro- 
vide a liberal culture and education suited to the needs 
and desires of those who become in large part the leaders 
in all phases of political, professional, or other social 
careers. 

Thus we note that the succeeding steps taken in the 
educational ladder are in harmony with and dependent 
upon preceding work. While only a correspondingly 
small number pass to the summit, all the people enjoy 
the advantages of the broad fundamentals and generali- 
zations which lie at the base of their educational sys- 
tem and equip very well for the common walks and voca- 
tions of life. In our discussion we shall separate the 
work of the three sections and consider them one at a 
time. It seems advisable to handle them in this way, 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 101 

and we believe that a more adequate conception of the 
work as a whole will be obtained by offering first the 
part affecting all the people and dealing with the prim- 
ary schools. 

II. THE PRIMARY SCHOOLS 

The primary schools are of two kinds, — those special- 
ly designed for the rural sections of the country and 
others provided for the towns and cities, the latter 
being somewhat richer in curricula, more complete in 
organization, and more thorough in operation than the 
former. Considering the fact that such uniformity 
characterizes the courses of study in the various schools, 
it will be necessary to present but one outline for each 
class of schools. An effort has been made to select 
courses that are representative and which clearly set 
forth typical conditions. Table VIII gives the pro- 
gram of work offered in one of the rural communes, and 
shows the number of hours per week devoted to each 
branch of study for the seven years in the course. Just 
after the legislative act of 1889, the Department sent 
out a "normal plan" which served as a guide in ar- 
ranging the time-tables for rural municipalities. As a 
result great uniformity exists. 



102 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

TABLE VIII 

Table Showing the Number of Hours per Week for 
Each Branch of Instruction in the Course of Study in 
Fredrikvaern Commune.* 



Year 



I. 11. III. IV. V. VI. VII. Total 



Religion 


7 


7 


5 


6 


6 


6 


6 


43 


Norwegian 


10 


8 


8 


8 


8 


6 


6 


54 


Mathematics 


6 


5 


4 


6 


4 


6 


6 


37 


Geography 






2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


13 


History 






2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


13 


Nature Study 


2 


3 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


14 


Writing 


5 


5 


4 


4 


2 


2 


2 


24 


Drawing 






1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


9 


Vocal Music 




2 


1 


2 


2 


2 


2 


11 


Manual Training 






2 


2 


4 


6 


6 


20 


Gymnastics 








2 


2 


2 


2 


8 



Total 



30 30 30 38 38 40 40 246 



The program just above is normal and typical in 
every respect. The schools are very uniform in their 
work and, as previously stated, no further tables are 
necessary in order to give a concise idea of the work 
generally presented in the rural districts of the entire 
country. 

*Year 1905. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 103 

The second program selected is the one used in the 
primary schools of Christian ia.* The schools of this 
city are among the best and are taken as models for a 
number in other cities and towns. 
♦Year 1910-1911. 



104 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 









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Division 
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Sex 


Religion 
Norwegian 
Mathematics 
Geography 
History 
Nature Study 
Writing 
Drawing 
Vocal Music 
Manual Training 
Gymnastics 
Total 


is 

tHCQ 

H— * 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 105 

The comparative table on page 106 clearly evidences 
the similarities already referred to and, at the same time, 
serves to indicate all variations. However, in the mak- 
ing of comparisons, difference in the number and dis- 
tribution of hours is more a matter of method or cor- 
relation between branches than an indication of actual 
difference in accomplishment. For example, a large 
number of hours for writing may mean exclusively 
work in practice writing, but it is very probable that 
it will include a considerable amount of work in the 
mother-tongue or a definite correlation with nature 
study, history, or religion. The fundamental standard 
by which work is judged or measured is whether it pre- 
pares the pupil fully for work in the middle school. 



106 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



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Christiania 

Bergen 

Trondhjem 

Stavanger 

Drammen 

Kristiansand 

Aalesmid 

Fredrikshald 

Skien 

Kristiansmid 



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PQ 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 107 

Religion The four R's in Norway's educa- 

Reading tional system form the center of their 

Reckoning educational endeavors. Only a super- 
RiTiNG ficial glance at the tables presented is 

necessary in order to notice their 
prominence throughout the course of study. While 
the amount of time devoted to them is in itself a suffi- 
ciently strong indication of their predominance, we 
must also carry in mind an allowance for closest pos- 
sible correlation between them as constant and addi- 
tional factors along the same line. Bearing these 
things in mind we enter at once upon the discussion 
of the course of study or school plan. Though the 
programs presented and digest of plans following or 
accompanying are taken from particular schools, the 
discussion throughout will be general unless otherwise 
specified. For varied reasons, but chiefly because they 
are typical, specific, and concrete, the courses of study 
used in Christiania — primary and secondary — are chos- 
en as illustrations. The following is not a verbatim 
translation of Christiania 's plan of instruction but an 
abbreviated statement of the work as outlined in their 
published school plan (Skoleplan) . I have endeavored 
to select the more vital points throughout and to 
represent them as exactly as a condensed version ren- 
ders possible. Where inaccuracies or omissions occur 
they are due to a demand for economy — ^the things 
omitted not being regarded as absolute essentials to a 
correct representation of the intent and spirit of the 
work as carried on. 



108 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

OUTLINE OF SUBJECTS OF INSTRUCTION 

Religion 

Aim. The aims of instruction in religion are to de- 
velop the religious instincts of the children and to in- 
still in them a recognition of Christianity, out of which 
may grow a healthy Christian life and a clear concep- 
tion of the church. 

To attain these, an effort is made to impart the fol- 
lowing fund of information: 

Definite acquaintance with the more important parts 
of Bible history, with the chief events in church his- 
tory, and with the catechism according to the Evan- 
gelical Lutheran creed. 

First Division 

Class I. (Six half hour periods weekly.) Instruc- 
tion during the beginning weeks consists in simple 
stories, songs, hymns, prayers, and conversations de- 
signed to impart a knowledge of Christianity, ethics, 
and morals; to effect defiaite connections with previous 
home training; and to awaken and develop religious 
and moral attitudes in the children preparatory to the 
more direct instruction to follow. 

The real instruction in Christianity or religion begins 
with Bible stories selected from the Old and New Testa- 
ments and specially adapted to the understanding of the 
children and their ability to master the same. The 
following stories are among the ones used: The Story 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 109 

of Joseph, Samuel and Hannah, David and Goliath, 
The Birth of Jesus, The Three Wise Men, Jesus in the 
Temple, Jesus Feeding the Five Thousand, Jesus 
Raising the Widow's Son, Jesus Blessing the Children, 
Jesus Teaching the Disciples How to Pray. The stories 
are presented orally and explained and elucidated in 
such a way that the children may receive clear and vivid 
pictures of the persons and events referred to, appreciate 
their connections with the Holy Scriptures, and be 
able to rehearse the narratives in an intelligent manner. 
Whenever possible the religious or moral content of 
the conversation should be brought to a climax in a 
simple passage of Scripture, a response from the cate- 
chism, or a verse of some hymn, which should be 
memorized. 

Class II. (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bible 
stories from Old and New Testaments taken mainly 
from the time of the patriarchs and Moses. Among 
them are the following : 

From Old Testament: The Creation and Eden, The 
Fall, Cain and Abel, The Flood, The Call of Abraham, 
Abraham and Lot, The Birth and Offering of Isaac, 
The Marriage of Isaac, Esau and Jacob, Isaac Blessing 
His Sons, Jacob's Flight, The Birth and Rearing of 
Moses, The Call of Moses, Moses Before Pharaoh, The 
Exodus from Egypt. 

Fro7n New Testament: The Birth of Jesus, Jesus' 
Entry into Jerusalem, Jesus Suffering in the Garden 
of Gethsemane, Jesus' Death on the Cross, The Burial 
of Jesus, The Resurrection of Jesus, The Outpouring 
of the Holy Ghost. Instruction is exclusively oral. 



no THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Historical references are disregarded. Historical situa- 
tions are frequently clarified by references to the his- 
tory of civilization and geography. New phases of 
God's dealings with men and their attitudes toward 
Him are singled out and presented for consideration. 
Passages of Scripture and others from the catechism 
or hymns are treated in connection with the Bible 
stories as they are told. 

Class III. (Six half hour periods weekly.) Bibli- 
cal history up to and including the time of Solomon, 
characteristic stories from the prophetic period, and 
selections of Scripture from the New Testament de- 
signated officially for study in reference to certain 
church holidays. Among the topics included we find: 
The Tower of Babel, God's Covenant with Abra- 
ham, The Visit of the Three Men, The Lord Visits 
Sodom and Gomorrah, Jacob Serving Laban, Jacob's 
Return, The Travel to Sinai, The Giving of the Law, 
The Unfaithfulness of the People, The Travels from 
Sinai to Jordan, The Death of Moses, Joshua Leading 
the People into Canaan, Gideon, Ruth, Samuel, Saul 
Becomes King, Saul Rejected, God Chooses David to 
be King, David and Jonathan, Saul Pursuing David, 
The Death of Saul, David Chosen to be King by the 
People, The Fall and Restitution of David, Absalom, 
The Last Days of David's Life, Solomon, Elias, Jonah, 
Daniel. The matter covered in Classes I and II is 
again taken up, to which the above is added in historical 
connection. To this material Biblical geography and 
cultural history are added as needed, while hymns, 
passages of Scripture, or selections from the catechism 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 111 

are continually used. Through constant reviews the 
moral and religious contents from the various sources 
are connected into successive groups, each group center- 
ing around the life of some prominent Biblical character. 
Instruction is chiefly oral, though some reading from 
text is a privilege which may be indulged in as an aid. 
A certain amount of catechismal work may be assigned 
as home lessons. 

Second Division 

Class IV. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) 
New Testament history centering in the stories of Jesus ' 
childhood, His miracles, and His easier parables. New 
stories taken up : The Birth of John the Baptist Fore- 
told, The Birth of Jesus Foretold, The Birth of John 
the Baptist, Jesus Presented in the Temple, The Flight 
into Egypt, Appearance of John the Baptist, The Bap- 
tism of Jesus, Jesus is Tempted, The First Disciples 
Come to Jesus, The Marriage in Cana, Jesus Visits 
Nazareth, Jesus Choosing the Twelve Apostles, Jesus 
Heals the Centurion's Servant, The Death of John the 
Baptist, Jesus Healing the Palsied, Jesus Raising 
Jairus' Daughter, The Woman of Canaan, Parable of 
the Unmerciful Servant, The Good Samaritan, Jesus 
at the House of Martha and Mary, Parables of the Lost 
Sheep and the Lost Coin, Parable of the Prodigal Son, 
Dives and Lazarus, Healing of the Ten Lepers, Parable 
of the Publican and Pharisee, Parable of the Marriage 
of the King's Son, Easter, Pentecost. The extent to 
which details of stories. Biblical geography, cultural 



112 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

history, and passages of Scripture or catechism are in- 
cluded is governed by the maturity and education of the 
children. In this class considerable attention is given 
to the reading of hymns and New Testament Scrip- 
tures from the four Gospels (elucidating obscure pas- 
sages and difficult sentences), to connections between 
Bible stories and history, and to chronological sequence. 
Class V. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, weekly.) 
Continued instruction in New Testament history, 
especially the parables of Jesus and the story of his 
passion and resurrection. To this is added the account 
of the founding of the first Christian church and its 
spread by the efforts of the chief apostles. The work 
includes the following new stories: Jesus and Nicho- 
demus, Jesus and the Samaritan Woman, Jesus Com- 
mences to Speak in Parables, The Transfiguration of 
Jesus, Peter's Confession, The Man Bom Blind, Jesus 
the Good Shepherd, The Raising of Lazarus, Jesus in 
the House of Zacchaeus, Jesus in Bethany, Parable of 
the Labourers in the Vineyard, Parable of the Ten 
Virgins, Washing of Feet, The Lord's Supper, Jesus in 
Gethsemane, Jesus Before the High Priest and the 
Sanhedrin, Jesus Before Pilate and Herod, Crucifixion 
of Jesus, Christ's Burial, The Resurrection, Jesus Ap- 
pears to the Two Disciples on the Way to Emmaus, 
He Appears to the Disciples in Jerusalem, He Appears 
at the Sea of Tiberias, The Great Commission to the 
Disciples, His Ascension, The Outpouring of the Holy 
Ghost on Pentecost, The First Miracle and First Perse- 
cution, Stephen, The Ethiopian Eunuch, Saul, Cornelius, 
Paul Preaching the Gospel to the Gentiles, 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 113 

Bible reading, the catechism, Bible history, and 
hymns are studied as in former classes, but more in- 
tensively. Besides the catechism, passages of Scrip- 
ture, containing great Christian and moral truths are 
to be impressed and memorized verbatim. Contin- 
uous reviews through the years enable the children to 
connect several stories into groups, and to acquire com- 
plete information regarding the life and work of Christ. 
A small instruction book is used. First part and 
Article I of the second part are studied. 

Third Division 

Class VI. (Four hours weekly.) Bible history and 
Old Testament taken up simultaneously — Bible read- 
ing and ecclesiastical history alternating. A deeper 
knowledge of sacred history is sought. Striking illus- 
trations of God's plan of salvation operating among 
the Jews are given, designed to enable the children to 
appreciate the redemptive meaning of Old Testament 
history. Emphasis is placed on the period just pre- 
ceding the time of Christ, New stories introduced: 
The Division of the Kingdom, Elisha, The Downfall 
of the Kingdom of Israel, Isaiah, Jeremiah, The Fall 
of the Kingdom of Judah, The Jews under Babylonian 
Captivity, Their Return from Captivity, The Last 
Four Hundred Years. 

Familiarity with Old Testament Scriptures and his- 
tory, Biblical geography, and cultural history is to be 
gained. Articles II and III of the second part, and 
the third, fourth, and fifth parts of the instruction book 
are taken up. 



114 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Class VII . (Three hours weekly.) One Gospel — 
Matthew — is read connectedly and followed by a treat- 
ment of selected parts from the Acts of the Apostles 
in connection with the work of Biblical history in the 
fourth and fifth grades. All materials previously 
gathered from the various sources are again taken up, 
applied, and centered. 

Narratives relating to important periods of the 
church. Among them: — The Persecutions (under 
Nero, Poly carpus). The Victory of Christianity (Con- 
stantine). The Christian Ceremonies, Augustine, Her- 
mits and Monks, The Spread of Christianity, The 
Popes, The Crusades, The Preparation for the Reforma- 
tion, The Lutheran Reformation (Luther, the Jesuits, 
the Catholic Mission), The Lutheran Church in the 
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, in the Eight- 
eenth and Nineteenth Centuries, The Mission, Bible 
Societies. 

The aim in this division is to give information re- 
garding the development of the church in general, and 
of the Lutheran church in particular. Narratives are 
grouped around great central characters — Christian 
personages. A realization of the lofty aims of Chris- 
tianity on the part of the children together with an 
appreciation of their duties and responsibilities as mem- 
bers of the Christian church is the intent. By means of 
an instruction book the main divisions of church his- 
tory, general history, and the history of Norway are 
correlated. Information contained in the hymn book 
acquaints the children with the ceremonial order of the 
ecclesiastical year as well as with the contents and order 



COURSES QF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 115 

of the book itself. The study of previously memorized 
hymns and verses is emphasized and enlarged upon. 

It is to be remembered that in Norway church and 
state are united. Religious and scholastic interests 
are under the direction of the Department of Ecclesias- 
tical and Educational affairs. The minister of this 
department of State is one of the King's cabinet. Here 
we find one of the numerous attempts at the solution 
of the vexing question of moral instruction, or, to be 
more exact, religious instruction in the public schools. 
While the provisions for this teaching are not faultless, 
and though their course of instruction could not be 
adopted for use in America with its medley of religious 
prejudices, yet we must acknowledge that they are well 
adapted to the needs and desires of the people served. 
The citizenship of the country is homogenous religiously, 
almost universally Lutheran, and their traditions mili- 
tate against any change in religious creed. The teach- 
ing of religion in the schools has been the practice for 
generations, the instruction is taken as a matter of 
course, and it exerts its beneficient influences upon all. 

There are a number of important features of this 
moral instruction which press their claims for special 
mention, but we cannot discuss them all. A few, how- 
ever, demand some attesntion. The statement of the 
proverb, that as the twig is bent so will the tree be in- 
clined, has been borne out in practice times without 
number. Here, it seems to me, is one more illustration. 
Throughout their whole school life — that receptive, 
appropriating, formative period — the children have 
constantly before them ideals that are elevating, exam- 



116 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

pies that are inspiring, and admonitions that tend to 
create and develop within them an ambition to excel 
in beauty of character. That the morals of society 
are not kept more nearly pure by this procedure seems 
a psychological impossibility. Agam a rather success- 
ful attempt is made to have the home and school co- 
operate along the lines of personal purity. In fact the 
home, the school, and the church join hands and sup- 
plement each other in all efforts in religious and moral 
training. True it is that striking examples of nobility 
of character, high ideals, and moral worth abound in 
profane history as well as in sacred, in secular life as 
well as in religious, in living characters as truly as in 
those of past ages, but the school system of Norway 
provides ample opportunity for presenting all of these 
things in connection with their regular instruction in 
the various subjects taught, and, in addition, furnishes 
particularized instruction which makes a specialty 
of moral and religious development. It seems impera- 
tive that, when these ennobling lessons are thus vividly 
presented, the powers of imitation and habit should com- 
bine in the creation of stronger and nobler characters. 

Nevertheless, when religious instruction is made a 
requirement, it too frequently becomes formal and 
literal rather than spiritual and lifegiving. That this 
great misfortune is the case in some of the secondary 
schools of Norway is an indictment which cannot be 
denied. However, in the primary schools the instruc- 
tion is fruitful and important. As a consequence of 
these conditions the statement is common among many 
that in looking back over the years of religious instruc- 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 117 

tion they recall numerous happy instances of earnest, 
heartfelt prayer and Bible stories accompanied by in- 
tense feeling on the part of the teacher. Other experi- 
ences reveal the fact that some of the teaching profes- 
sion had not the sincerity and feeling back of their in- 
struction required in order to give vitality and meaning 
to the lessons presented. 

The entire question of instruction in morals in our 
public schools is one of pressing importance. It is 
being agitated in many lands today and a solution is 
sorely needed. Were all classes of society united as to 
what should be included in this instruction the matter 
would adjust itself very readily. However, social con- 
ditions in a single nation are more or less diverse, and 
between different nations still greater breaks are to be 
found. In fact the ideals and conceptions of society 
are so varied that no one present system would suffice 
for all. Could a code of ethics be formulated which 
would meet universal approval then its adoption and 
use might be hoped for. Until then each nation must 
necessarily follow the plan which seems best adapted 
to its social requirements. As already stated, the peo- 
ple of Norway are nearly all adherents to the Lutheran 
creed so there are very few dissenters from the common 
rule. Provision is made in the law that those who do 
not adhere to the state church and object to receiving 
instruction in this particular line may, upon request of 
parent or guardian, be excused from such instruction.* 
* Law for City Schools, Sec. 4. 



118 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Norwegian 

Aim. It is the aim of the instruction in Norwegian 
to further the mental development of children, especi- 
ally their linguistic ability. In this course of activity 
they should acquire : 

(1) Efficiency in apprehending and assimilating 
what they hear or read, confident readiness in reading, 
plain articulation, and correct and natural accentua- 
tion. 

(2) Efficiency in expressing themselves orally and 
in writing without making any serious errors in the 
common usage of language or the rules of composition. 

(3) Efficiency in the use of the grammar of the 
mother-tongue which is necessary for the above meas- 
ure of attainments. 

First Division 

Class I. (Boys twelve hours, girls eleven hours, 
weekly.) A suitable number (twelve or fifteen) of in- 
teresting children 's stories are told and utilized for the 
special purposes of mdening the circle of the children's 
imagination and developing in them ability in observa- 
tion, conception, and expression. An effort is made to 
render the general contents of the stories lucid through 
explanations, while the features arousing special interest 
in the minds of the pupils are made the objects of more 
detailed conversation. An effort is made to train the 
children in correct, free, and easy expression in con- 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 119 

nected sentences, and to develop in them the abihty 
to rehearse their stories freely and connectedly. 

Reading. The aim is ability to read the primer 
(ABC-en) with assurance and in a clear tone, properly 
articulating and accenting each word and syllable. 

Written exercises. The object of the written work 
is to teach the children to write words and simple sen- 
tences which have just been read orally or have been 
seen in the primer or on the blackboard. 

Class II. (Boys ten hours, girls eight hours, weekly.) 
Twenty or thirty of the most interesting and valuable 
selections (prose and poetry) contained in the reader 
are made the objects of special and thorough treatment. 
Comments, questions, elucidating explanations, and 
conversations are means employed in securing a vivid 
appreciation of the contents and in developing ability 
in their easy rehearsal. The other pieces are treated 
in a more cursory manner, only the larger views and 
the more general understanding of them being at- 
tempted. 

Special attention is given to having all readings slow 
with loud, plain, and correct articulation and proper 
accentuation. Habitual mistakes are carefully elim- 
inated. Story telling is also a feature of the year's 
work. 

Written exercises, made up of sentences and short 
parts of readings, conversations, or stories are given 
frequently and for short periods. Here the names of 
letters and spelling are attended to with great care. 

Class III. (Boys eight hours, girls seven hours, 
weekly.) Twenty or thirty paragraphs from the 
reader are given special attention — the remainder 



120 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

cursory. The plan of work is about the same as for 
Class II. Considerable attention is given to the re- 
hearsing of the reading lesson by the pupils. Some 
reproductions are to be quite detailed and exact though 
they are not to be given in the exact words of the text. 
Still other selections receive more general treatment. 
A few of the most pleasing poems should be memorized. 
Greater readiness in slow and even reading with loud 
and clear expression and proper natural accentuation 
should be sought. 

Written exercises. Selections from the language work 
giving special and rather extended attention to spell- 
ing, punctuation, and grammatical constructions and 
forms. The teacher sets examples of correct punctua- 
tion, etc. 

Second Division 

Class IV. (Five hours weekly.) A select number 
(20-30) of pieces from the reader treated as in the former 
classes, though more exhaustively; and, in addition, 
quite a wide range of selections chosen for more cur- 
sory reading. A considerable amount of information 
regarding the topics treated and explanations of literary 
expressions should form important parts of the instruc- 
tion in this class. Here, as in both preceding and suc- 
ceeding classes, it should be the aim to have the chil- 
dren make their meanings plain when conversing upon 
the selections read, at least to the degree of their ability 
and development. Parts of former conversations on 
various topics should also be recalled and woven into 
their discussions. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 121 

Written exercises. These shall include features pre- 
viously studied, and introduce more detailed and finer 
discriminations in grammatical usages and forms. 

Class V. (Boys four hours, girls five hours, weekly.) 
Exhaustive study of a few. selections and cursory read- 
ing in large quantities as before. Careful and abundant 
training in oral expression. Specific and detailed re- 
hearsal of topics discussed in which an increasing amount 
of knowledge gained through study, experience, and 
thought is utihzed. Short stories are read. Poems 
are memorized. Progress in clear and distinct articula- 
tion and easy and natural emphasis in harmony with 
refined speech is continuously a requirement. 

Written exercises. A continuation of former exer- 
cises and a considerable amount of copying, or the writ- 
ing of abstracts of lesson content, especially during the 
second half year. Orthographic, grammatical, and 
rhetorical forms are entered into more exhaustively 
and their niceties urged. Through continued practice 
in preparing and writing compositions, extra work in 
copying, and special study of orthography and punctua- 
tion, the children, by the close of this their fifth year of 
schoolmg, should be quite capable in punctuation as 
well as spelling, though they should not be expected to 
spell and punctuate independently with accuracy. 

Third Division 

Class VI. (Boys five hours, girls six hours, weekly.) 
Reading from a selected portion of the reader. Con- 
versations, information, explanations, and linguistic 



122 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

elucidations are to be entered into according to neces- 
sity. Increasing stress is here laid on the work of draw- 
ing out the thoughts, ideas, and knowledge of the pupils, 
and of inciting them to more independent, intellectual 
effort. 

Written exercises. Continued as previously though 
introducing larger amounts of independently selected 
forms of expression and insisting on greater accuracy 
in punctuation. Letter writing is added. 

Class VII . (Five hours weekly.) Selections from 
the reader and supplementary reading from recommend- 
ed books calculated to awaken, develop, and educate. 
Special attention given to the most important authors. 

Written exercises. Compositions on topics of in- 
interest, letter writing, business correspondence includ- 
ing applications, invoices,advertisements, and telegrams. 

The methods employed in presenting the mother- 
tongue are quite plainly set forth in the foregoing out- 
line. Though the content is not so specifically defined, 
the general lines are indicated in such a way as to give 
very adequate insight thereinto. Some of the methods 
of presentation seem somewhat cumbersome and rather 
antiquated. This impression is due chiefly to ter- 
minology. The actual work in the schoolrooms is 
flexible, free, and, as a rule, attractive. The latitude 
granted to the teachers in all their work admits of almost 
unlimited individual initiative. Many of their teachers 
are quite expert in the most modern methods. 

The utilitarian idea which pervades every phase of 
their school work is especially noticeable in the teaching 
of their own language. In harmony with this idea, let 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 123 

me call attention to the fact that, from the first, constant 
use is made of every attainment in both oral and written 
form. The oral work embraces the reading of the text, 
reading from the blackboard, and conversational exer- 
cises on the special topics being considered. Written 
work on the same lessons include copying of certain 
selections or parts of them and original expressions 
in regard to the contents of lessons read. In the ad- 
vanced grades these written exercises become more and 
more extended and complicated until they amount to 
complete essays. Special attention is given to correct 
forms of expression and to the acquirement of habits 
of clear and distinct enunciation. The child, who from 
his earhest school days becomes habituated to exact 
pronunciations, is very liable — almost sure — to spell 
correctly; and, when constant use is made of the lan- 
guage in written exercises, the accepted and approved 
forms of expression become the fixed usages. 

Now their treatment of the mother-tongue is a com- 
bination of our reading, spelling, language lessons, 
grammar, rhetoric, and literature, all taught in their 
natural order as they arise through actual use. In- 
cidentally, vast amounts of biography, history, geog- 
raphy, and natural science as well as writing are in- 
cluded. The richness of content and thoroughness of 
treatment deserve careful consideration in the writing 
of courses and still more in their application. Speciali- 
zation in phases of a single subject in lower schools 
nearly always means waste of energy, scattering of 
forces, and disappointment in the end. On the con- 
trary, imification and close correlation result in economy 



124 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of time and effort, and issue in more worthy attain- 
ments. The several fields of thought are already too 
much isolated from each other, and unless some guards 
are erected the individual fields also will be broken up 
and their distinctive phases so divorced from one an- 
other that their cooperative tendencies and values will 
become void and their relationships will be lost sight 
of. Norwegian is easily the preponderant study in 
Norway's schools, but, since it is so inclusive, it prob- 
ably deserves the large amount of time devoted to it. 
The long lists of supplementary readings now pro- 
vided in our American schools exert a wholesome in- 
fluence. Their constant revision and extension fur- 
nish materials which in the hands of skilled teachers, 
guarantee to the pupils sure knowledge and ability in 
the use of the mother- tongue. The limitless resources 
in English literature, America's lavish provision for 
higher education and professional training, and the 
freedom granted to our teaching profession leave the 
teachers of our language without excuse. The pupils 
studying English in America have a right to expect the 
best. One cordition which frequently militates against 
first class work in this line is that school boards all too 
frequently fail to realize that being a teacher of English 
means more than merely hearing lessons so many times 
a week. A very large part of the most important work 
must be done aside from class exercises. If there be 
any teacher justified in asking a reduction in hours 
of instruction it is the teacher of the mother- tongue. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 125 

Mathematics 

Aim. Readiness in the four mathematical operations 
in whole numbers, decimal numbers, and simple frac- 
tions, written and oral. Ability to independently solve 
various examples in the forms in which they generally 
appear in practical life, also examples in proportion and 
examples in percentage, together with problems of 
planes and solids. Course and mode of its execution 
as given in a text — Instruction in Mathematics (Regne- 
undervisningen) — ^followed in all essentials. 

First Division 

Class I. (Boys five hours, girls four hours, weekly.) 
Through constant use of illustrative material (objects 
about the room, wooden pins, cubes, the children's 
fingers, etc.) the children are taught to gradually be- 
come acquainted with the numbers to ten, twenty, 
thirty, and on up to one hundred ; and they are afforded 
continuous practice in reading, writing, and explain- 
ing the numbers, as well as in performing simple solu- 
tions in the four arithmetical operations. At the close 
of the year the children should be able to count to one 
hundred forward and backward. They must know how 
to manipulate the numbers from one to ten in adding 
to or subtracting from any number less than one hun- 
dred, and be able, by the assistance of the tables, to 
answer questions in multiphcation (two's to five's) 
and some questions in division. Chief importance at- 
taches to the ability of the children to use the numbers 
from one to thirty. 



126 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Class II. (Four hours weekly.) Acquaintance with 
and abihty to read and write any number up to one 
miUion. 

Mental arithmetic. Continuation of operations be- 
gun in Class I. When proficient in adding and sub- 
tracting units to and from one hundred, tens and units 
are taken up in the same way. Examples in easy 
multiplication, with occasional use of division, carried 
on throughout the year. 

Tablet work. Addition and subtraction of numbers 
up to one million. In the operations coin, measure, 
and weight denominations are used, and are illustrated 
by coins, measures, and weights. 

Class III. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, 
weekly.) Acquaintance with the numeral system up 
to and including milUons. Continuous practice in 
reading, writing, and using numbers. 

Mental operations. Addition and subtraction of num- 
bers up to one hundred continued. Thereafter extend 
the numbers as far as the children can use them with 
certainty and rapidity. Multiplication of numbers up 
to one hundred by units. 

Tablet work. More work in addition and subtrac- 
tion going farther than to numbers with six ciphers. 
Multiplication of numbers with many ciphers by multi- 
pliers having one or more ciphers. 

Second Division 

Class IV. (Boys four hours, girls three hours, 
weekly.) Division with divisors having one or more 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 127 

ciphers. Separation of numbers into their individual 
factors. Finding of the least common multiple. After 
this a thorough drill in the four arithmetical operations 
with whole numbers — old and new exercises. 

Mental and tablet exercises in closest relation to each 
other. In all mental operations, here or later, rapid 
and positive use should be made of the easier examples 
before the harder ones are fumbled or handled with un- 
certainty. 

Class V. (Two hours weekly.) After the necessary 
preparation, practice in the three operations with deci- 
mal numbers. In connection with the consideration of 
plane surfaces the children should be given practice 
in measuring parallelograms, triangles, irregular quad- 
rangles and many-sided surfaces — ^triangles should pre- 
dominate. 

Mental and tablet exercises parallel each other and are 
in intimate relation. 

Third Division 

Class VI. (Three hours weekly.) Preparatory prac- 
tice in common fractions together with addition and 
subtraction of fractions having a common denominator 
and others which can easily be reduced to a common 
denominator. Multiplication and division using or 
including fractions. Further development with men- 
tal operations growdng out of and in connection with 
tablet work. 

Class VII. (Three hours weekly.) Percentage in- 
cluding interest, rebate, and discount. The calculating 



128 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of cubes, prisms, pyramids, circles, cylinders, cones; 
also shortened pyramids, cones, and cylinders. 

After this a general review so far as time admits. 

Simple arithmetical operations occupy the entire 
field during the earlier years. The elementary alge- 
braic forms and methods of solution are introduced re- 
latively early, and minor geometric relations and opera- 
tions are presented during the last (seventh) year of the 
lower schools. These latter features are radically 
different from our general procedure in the United 
States. We are in the habit of presenting the various 
mathematical subjects one at a time, completing one 
before another is considered to any extent whatever. 
For example, arithmetic is taken up and gone through, 
while parts of geometry and algebra which would be 
great aids in some of the arithmetical solutions are 
studiously avoided or excluded until the formal study 
of that particular subject is finally begun. The people 
of Norway, on the contrary, enter the larger field of 
mathematics and, in a more rational manner — a more 
psychological way — utilize available processes and forms 
at every opportunity. The phases of mathematics 
are not specialized into isolation but coordinated into 
a working unity. Instead of studying one subject 
throughout its intricacies and side issues before admit- 
ting consideration of other phases of mathematics, 
they make it the rule to utilize the elemental factors of 
the various mathematical subjects in every way pos- 
sible. They give recognition to the simpler and more 
fundamental principles and operations regardless of 
the special phase of the subject to which they belong. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 129 

and use the entire product as groundwork for succeeding 
steps in the science. In this way parts of algebra and 
geometry become valuable contributing preliminaries 
to higher arithmetical operations. 

The texts used by the pupils are little more than 
a series of exercises. All teaching is done by the teacher 
and the texts are arranged in such a way that the chil- 
dren may have opportunity to become skilled in the 
principles evolved in class through application of them 
in the long lists of problems in their texts. Very little 
blackboard is provided for the pupils' use, hence but 
little blackboard work is accomplished. Each room 
has a small board on which the teacher or a pupil may 
go through solutions. Never have I seen more than 
one at a time working at the blackboard. While the 
limited use of blackboards generally calls for an in- 
creased amount of dependence upon intellectual activity 
and consequent increase in mental alertness, the free 
use of blackboards relieves the mind of unnecessary 
burdens which may as well be borne by crayon, and 
thus provides for the higher centers a freer activity in 
pushing on the quest for the unknown. 

Geography 

Aim. To obtain (1) A somewhat complete ac- 
quaintance with the fatherland; its conditions, com- 
merce, maimer of life. (2) Acquaintance with the 
geography of Europe, especially the countries to the 
north and the other longer civilized countries. (3) A 
view of the different continents and a closer acquaint- 



130 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

ance with lands and places which are of greatest im- 
portance to the fatherland. (4) Knowledge of the 
most important features of physical and mathematical 
geography. 

First Division 

Class II. (Boys three hours, girls two hours, weekly.) 
With continuous reference to local geography and 
places known to the children, the pupils are brought to 
understand geographical forms and relations in general. 
Special attention is given to charts and maps. In- 
struction begins with drawings (on blackboard and tab- 
lets) of the schoolroom; then extends to schoolgrounds, 
to the immediate surroimdings with streets and some 
of the more important buildings; and then to the entire 
city with its environs, etc., etc. The children should 
become acquainted with the more important features 
of topography, soil, valleys, plains, ridges, mountains, 
seas, fjords, rivers, brooks, seasons, day and night, 
rising and setting of planets (sun, moon, and stars), 
flora and fauna, altitude, sea level, etc. From famili- 
arity with the city and its surroundings the work ex- 
tends to the entire fatherland which is considered in 
an elementary fashion. Herein are included elemen- 
tary studies of coast line, principal systems of valleys, 
and location and size of cities. 

Map drawing of small localities. 

Class III. (Two hours weekly.) The map of 
Europe. Beginning with the fatherland, including its 
location with reference to other lands and seas as well 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 131 

as its relations thereto, enter into a study of other 
European countries in the order in which they would 
naturally be entered if touring from the fatherland. 
Subdivisions of the sea and land, also cities, railways, 
canals, rivers, and mountains are to be studied. Pic- 
tures are to be used in illustration. By the use of globes 
and other illustrative material, the discussion may be 
extended to other parts of the world. Each of the sev- 
eral divisions of the earth is to be treated in an elemen- 
tary manner. Everything is to be outlined or indicated 
on the maps and charts — ^first by the teacher and later 
by the pupils. 

Second Division 

Class IV. (One hour weekly.) On the foundation 
of what was done in Class III the work shall be extended 
to the outlying divisions of Europe — Norway, Sweden, 
Denmark, The British Isles, France, Spain, Portugal, 
Italy, Russia. The study of maps is emphasized both 
for review and new work. Every land is considered 
with reference to the fatherland, other known lands, 
the equator, and the poles. Attention confined to 
typical aspects: description of a typical city, a manu- 
facturing center, etc., special variations in climate, 
flora and fauna, chief natural scenery, commercial 
activities, products and conditions of the citizens. 
Readings on geographical topics are correlated with 
picture illustrations. Details and illustrations utilized 
as in Class III. 

Class V. (One hour weekly.) Holland, Belgium, 
Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, and the 



132 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Balkan peninsula are considered after the plan used 
in Class IV. After these European countries, foreign 
countries are discussed. Study and instruction in this 
class is in accord with the outlmes of work in previous 
classes though more exhaustive and minute. India, 
China, the large islands in the Pacific Ocean, North 
Africa with its Sahara, Central Africa, The United 
States of America, Australia, etc., are also considered. 

Third Division 

Class VI. (One hour weekly.) The geography of 
the fatherland is gone through thoroughly with the aim 
of imparting to the children a rather complete knowl- 
edge of their country's nature, commerce, and life in 
its various localities. The chief points considered are: 
coast line, surface, water channels, climate^east and 
west — boundaries, inhabitants, life of the people, poli- 
tical divisions. This is to be constantly correlated 
with what has been learned previously of other European 
countries. Map drawing in detail. Review of former 
work. 

Class VII. (One hour weekly.) The more import- 
ant features of mathematical and physical geography 
are presented, being continuously illustrated by charts, 
maps, globes, astronomical plates, etc. The horizon, 
earth formations, zones, yearly and daily rotations, 
geographical breadth and length ; the moon, its phases ; 
the planets, etc., are important topics for study. 
Others are positions of continents and oceans with 
reference to each other, climate and physical features 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 133 

of the earth, the air, winds, changes in temperature, 
movements of the sea, the more important ocean 
streams (Gulf and Polar streams), etc. Throughout 
the study constant connections should be made between 
what is known in geography, natural history, and 
nature study. 

The outline indicates both thoroughness and a close 
correlation with related fields of work. Beginning 
with the well-known in geography they gradually widen 
their horizon and establish connections with the more 
remote parts of the earth until the children obtain a 
moderately accurate appreciation and knowledge of 
this branch of study and get a view of its intricate rela- 
tions with life and human activity. While the work 
of the course is generally characterized by thorough- 
ness, their study of localities outside of Europe is simply 
a skimming over or a skipping glance. 

To be sure time is insufficient to enable them to ex- 
haust all opportunities; but, it would seem more con- 
sistent with their general idea of concentrating on 
matters which directly concern the fatherland and its 
subjects, did they bring the young into a more intimate 
acquaintance with America and a fuller appreciation 
of what America really means to Norway and Nor- 
wegians. Very few Norsemen are without vital in- 
terests here. Nearly all, it seems, have immediate 
relatives or very dear friends who have migrated from 
the native land and have established homes in the 
United States. It appears that it would be important 
for them to follow the path of their migrating brethren 
and acquaint themselves more fully with the geography 



134 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of America. Its life, topography, commerce, and other 
distinctive features would add to their geography a 
chapter of unsurpassed values. 
The work which is done is commendable for many 
reasons. The many-sided views obtained by varied 
methods of attack are rich and meaningful. Every 
pupil is ready with a full discussion in response to a 
question relating to their o^n country. Furthermore, 
they are informed with reference to the relationships 
existing between each country studied and the father- 
land. These have been clearly pointed out. The 
perspective obtained through the study of physical 
and mathematical geography affords richer meaning 
to every day of life as well as to all the phenomena of 
nature. 

History 

Aim. The chief aim of instruction in history is to 
inspire the children's historic instincts and love for 
their country and people. In an effort to obtain this 
the following information is imparted: (1) A some- 
what connected knowledge of the history of the father- 
land together with the fundamental tendencies of the 
social order. (2) Acquaintance with the most sig- 
nificant incidents in general history. 

First Division 

Class III. (Two hours weekly.) Selected narra- 
tives from the history of the fatherland. The collec- 
tion of stories includes the following: Harald the 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 135 

Fair Haired, Haakon the Good, Haakon Jarl, Olaf 
Trygveson, Olaf the Holy, Sverre Sigurdson, Haaken 
the Aged, Margaret and Albert, Christian the Second, 
Christian the Fourth, Tordenskjold, The Years 1807- 
1814, The Time of Pirates, Kristian August, Norway 
in 1814, Kristian Fredrik, Eidsvold, 17th of May, Nor- 
way's decennial celebration. 

The stories are presented orally and are so detailed 
that the children get clear pictures of persons and in- 
cidents. The material of instruction is centered about 
particular and important persons and incidents in 
order to give them greater fixity. The pupils rehearse 
the stories they have been taught. Historic poems 
and songs of the fatherland which refer especially to 
people or incidents are studied in connection with the 
history. The material received through instruction 
in geography during the former year is utilized as 
groundwork in building up and enriching the historical 
ideas of the fatherland. The more important phases 
of social institutions are presented in a way suited to 
the capacity of the pupils. As the stories proceed, an 
attempt is made to awaken a degree of appreciation of 
their historical sequence. 

Second Division 

Class IV. (Two hours weekly.) Stories and de- 
scriptions regarding general history centering about 
the following points or topics: Ancient world king- 
doms, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Norse, Papacy, 
great discoveries and inventions. Treatment here is 



136 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

similar to that given in Class III, Stories, anecdotes 
and pictures add life to regular routine. Stories of 
the fatherland are presented in very brief form and are 
given in order to effect connection with general events 
in world history. Here again geography is made the 
groundwork of history. 

Class V. (One hour weekly.) Work carried on as 
previously. Narratives of events chiefly during the 
time from the Reformation to the French Revolution. 

Central features studied: Luther and the time of 
the Reformation (Luther's childhood and youth, Karl 
v., extension of the Reformation, and the Thirty 
Years' War), the period of absolute monarchy, the time 
preceding the Revolution, science and discovery. Pre- 
sentation of topics the same as pre^ iously given. Here 
is included also a considerable amount of culture his- 
tory, descriptions from which are given in such a way 
that life among the higher classes, as well as among the 
oppressed, may be presented and appreciated. 

Third Division 

Class VI. (One hour weekly.) Work continued as 
heretofore. Stories from the time of the Revolution 
down to modern times. Among the materials used 
are the following topics: time of the Revolution, 1789- 
1800; Napoleon, 1800-1815; July and February Revo- 
lutions, Napoleon III., Germany's consolidation, dis- 
coveries, and inventions, delineations of the history of 
civilization, and the advance of modem times in in- 
dustries and means for communication. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 137 

Class VII. (Two hours weekly.) The history of 
the fatherland gone through in great detail and in a 
definitely connected manner. All work based upon 
what has been learned in former classes. The follow- 
ing are among the more important points considered: 
Norway in ancient times, Norway organized into a 
Christian kingdom, Norway's time of prosperity, Nor- 
way under internal wars, Norway under later kings of 
Swedish family and descent, Norway in union with 
Sweden and Denmark, Norway united to Denmark 
until 1661, time of absolute monarchy (1661-1814), Nor- 
way in 1814, Norway since 1814. In addition, the chief 
features of social institutions, the condition of the 
state, rights and obligations of citizens, state adminis- 
tration, communal affairs, and similar topics are dis- 
cussed at some length. 

By the assistance of a suitable text the presentation 
should impart to the pupils a moderately connected 
knowledge of the historical development of the father- 
land up to the present time. The children should ob- 
tain clear insight into the inner historic situations; 
persons, events, and specific dates standing as con- 
tributors in the background. Historic sagas and re- 
lated selections are used in connection. While atten- 
tion centers in the history of the fatherland, important 
contemporary events in general history are kept con- 
stantly before the eyes, frequent reference being made 
to the studies in Classes IV- VI. 

The stated aims, enumerated means, and outlined 
methods of presentation afford a fairly good idea of the 
work done in the study of history throughout the 



138 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

primary schools. It has been observed, perhaps by 
many, that instruction in history has been preceded by 
one year's study of geography, that the geography of 
the several countries precedes the history of the peo- 
ples inhabiting them, and that geographical apprecia- 
tion is utilized as a foundation for instruction in his- 
tory. 

The main purposes of instruction in history are: de- 
velopment of patriotic and loyal citizens, intellectual 
training, and cultural information. The prized traits 
of citizenship are read, sung, and drilled into the daily 
Hfe of every child in the entire country, and these im- 
pressions are fixed so definitely that they live through 
generations, even when the subjects are transplanted 
to foreign soils. 

Story telling in the beginnings of history instruction 
affords an immediate appeal both to the children's in- 
terest in personal activities and to their liking for that 
form of instruction. The characters whose biogra- 
phies are delineated are the men around whom national 
activities have centered. The bits of history related 
are of epoch-making incidents from the earliest times 
down to the present. Being presented through bio- 
graphy they have a personal touch and flavor which 
secure vital and immediate responses from the chil- 
dren. 

There are still other features worthy of consideration. 
Incidents of historic interest are not only pointed out 
and studied but the scenes of these are actually visited. 
Here again we see the definite way in which history and 
geography are correlated. Too, since Norway has been 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 139 

favored by the gift of many literary geniuses, most 
historic characters and events have found place in 
literary classics. All along the way, songs, poems, and 
dramas having relation to national history are brought 
into the instruction in a living, real way. The children 
are given abundant opportunity to attain proficiency 
in relating historic events with information gained from 
the fields of geography, language, and literature. 

Nature Study 

Aim. Instruction in nature study attempts to 
awaken the children's interest in and regard for nature 
in all its expressions, and to exercise their thought 
powers and judgment so as to enable them to find or 
make connections between cause and effect. In order 
that their attention be centered upon the suitability to 
purpose, conformity to law, harmony and beauty, the 
children should have their thought directed to nature 's 
creation and maintenance. Finally, the children 
through this instruction should obtain a conception 
of how mankind attempts to control nature and to 
utilize its strength in the promotion of human welfare. 

Materials for instruction. Our bodily structure in 
the large or whole, as necessary to an understanding of 
the general conditions in man 's physical life and as fun- 
damental to instruction in health. The more important 
native and foreign animals and plants ; their gro^lh and 
life, together with their importance in nature 's economy. 
The natural forces which have greatest significance for 
organic life and for man's efficiency. 



140 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Methods of instruction. Natural objects or repre- 
sentations of them in model or drawing, and operations 
of natural forces illustrated by experiments observed 
and written up. The accuracy of observations are 
tested by the pupil's oral or written accounts of what 
they see. Conditions and things familiar to the chil- 
dren in common life are the ones to be used above all 
others. 

Class IV. (One hour weekly.) Short synopsis 
over our bodily structure (four hours). Present by 
oral instruction and through illustrative materials the 
skeleton, muscles, digestive organs, skin, circulation, 
respiratory organs. The same points may also be 
studied as they appear in the lower animals. 

Mammals. (Twenty hours.) Horse, ass, cow, sheep, 
goat, reindeer, deer, elk, camel, cat, wild-cat, lion, 
tiger, dog, wolf, fox, marten, bear, swine, elephant, 
seal, whale, hare, rabbit, squirrel, rat, beaver, anteater, 
bat, monkey. 

Fowls. (Ten hours.) Tame chickens, woodcock, 
sparrow, yellow hammer, bullfinch, lark, swallow, star- 
ling, dove, cuckoo, parrot, hawk, falcon, eagle, owl, 
heron, stork, duck, goose, swan, gull, ostrich, and others. 

Instruction begins with typical animal forms which 
are illustrated by charts or drawings when the stuffed 
or mounted specimens are not at hand. The children 
are required to depend upon themselves as much as 
possible in finding out individual characteristics in the 
bodily structures of the chosen forms. Then bodily 
structure and habits are related, as are also their homes, 
food, color, and environment. Finally, the animal's 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 141 

meaning in the economy of nature and its value to 
man are the points studied. Along with the careful 
study of a typical form, related animals are examined 
in a more general and cursory manner. The children 
are taught to remember that while they have dominion 
over the animals they are at the same time under obliga- 
tions to them. Disregard of these duties is looked upon 
as rudeness. Animal stories form a part of the in- 
struction. After studying the chosen types a review 
takes notice of common characters and separates ani- 
mals into classes. Instruction is based on a text. 

Class V. (Two hours weekly.) Plants. (Forty 
hours.) Dicotyledonous plants. Bluebells, buttercups, 
strawberry, apple trees, pea, clover, beans, cherry, 
plum, dandelion, blueberry, heather, potato, tobacco, 
willow, birch, hazel, and others, studied under their reg- 
ular headings or in their special families. 

Monocotyledonous plants. Rye, barley, wheat, oats, 
timothy, lily of the valley, pine, fir, juniper, in connec- 
tion with respective families. 

Flowerless plants. Ferns, moss, mushrooms. 

Foreign useful plants. Coffee, tea, cotton, sugar 
cane, rice, maize, orange, palms, spices. All plants are 
studied carefully under their respective subdivisions. 
As in the consideration of animals, the growth, vital 
organs, habitat, and use of plants are studied, as are 
also their grouping, fruit, etc. About fifty plants are 
studied carefully and others are related to them. The 
children are taught not to injure plants or trees. 

Animals. (Twenty hours.) Adder, lizard, croco- 
dile, turtle, frog, toad, mackerel, pike, salmon, trout, 



142 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

herring, haddock, flounder, eel, shark, cabbage butter- 
fly, silk worm, moth, bee, bumble-bee, wasp, ant, fly, 
gnat, grasshopper, spider, lobster, crab, angleworm, 
leech, trichina, snail, mussel, star-fish, sea urchin, 
coral, sponge, etc. Instruction along same line as 
in Class IV. 

Physics, (Sixteen hours.) Based on a text. In- 
struction to be accompanied by experiments whenever 
possible — otherwise illustrated by drawings and models. 

Solids. Resistance to change in form: hardness, 
elasticity. Resistance to change of extensity: com- 
pressibility, porosity, adhesion, cohesion. 

Liquids. No fixed form, apparent unchangeability 
of extensity, adhesion to solids, solution of solids, mix- 
ing of liquids, endosmose. 

Gases. No definite form, attraction, diffusion, ab- 
sorption. 

Gravitation. Weight, units of weight, weighing, re- 
lation between weight and size, force of weight as a 
cause of movement, hindrances to movement, forces in 
equilibrium. 

The lever. Balance, hand presses, on the principle 
of the lever. 

Class VI. (Two hours weekly.) Liquids. (Eight 
hours.) Distribution of pressure, Archimedes' law, 
specific gravity, communicating shaft. 

Properties of air. (Eight hours.) Archimedes* law, 
the atmosphere and its pressure, barometer, pumps and 
lifters, Mariotte's law. 

Heat. (Twelve hours.) Different temperatures, ef- 
fects of heat, expansion of bodies, the thermometer, 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 143 

maximum density of water, melting and freezing, evap- 
oration and condensation, boiling, degree of pressure 
at the boiling point. 

Transmisson of heat by radiation and by conduction, 
good and poor conductors, temperature and humidity 
of the air, downward pressure, circulation of water, 
atmospheric currents, sources of heat, heat as force, 
steam pressure. 

Sound. (Eight hours.) Origin of sound, its trans- 
mission, rate of transmission, the ear, tones, reflection 
of sound. 

Light. (Ten hours.) Self-illuminating and dark 
bodies, transparent and opaque, straight path of light, 
shade, rate of transmission, reflection, refraction, dif- 
fusion of color, convex and concave lenses, microscope, 
telescope, camera, the eye, spectacles. 

Magnetism. (Five hours.) The magnet and its 
poles, their reciprocal relations, magnetizing, difference 
magnetically in iron and steel, horseshoe magnet, com- 
pass. 

Electricity. (Fifteen hours.) Electricity of friction, 
two kinds of electrical condition, conductors and in- 
sulators, communcicating and distributing, electrical 
machines, lightning and thunder, lightning rods, 
electrical current, battery, electric light, electro- 
magnetism, telegraph, telephone, electricity which 
generates power. 

Equilibrium and Motion. (Ten hours.) Motion 
with uniform, increasing, or decreasing rapidity; com- 
bination of motion and force (the parallelogram of 
power, center of gravity, the three conditions of b?ilance, 



144 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

the beam, the inchned plane); work and vital force; 
experiment with the pendulum. 

Class VII. (Two hours weekly.) Physics. (Six- 
teen hours.) Machines, block, tackle, windlass, the 
curved pivot, various driving forces (water wheel, 
steam engines, dynamos), apphcation of machinery 
in the industries, railways and steamboats. 

Chemistry. (Sixteen hours.) Ingredients of water 
and air, coal, carbonic acid, burning and oxidation. 
Fundamental elements as material in all bodies. Exam- 
ples of elements: oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, 
chlorine, sulphur, phosphorus, aluminum, iron, silver, 
and gold. Examples for combinations: water, am- 
monia, sulphuric acid, rust, soda, cooking salt, lime, 
chalk, clay, quartz, ores. Examples of organic matter: 
starch, sugar, albumen, alchohol, fats. Instruction 
in chemistry consists in illustrations and descriptions 
of materials and experiments. 

Structure and life of the human body. Study of 
health. (Thirty hours.) Based on text. Study of 
skeleton, muscles, nervous system, work and rest, 
sense organs and their use, digestive organs and pro- 
cesses, use of teeth, blood and circulation, breathing 
pure and impure air, kidneys, meaning of bodily ex- 
ercise, structure and use of the skin, bathing, clothing, 
dwellings, foods and pleasures (under this intoxicating 
drinks, tobacco, etc.) Something regarding conta- 
gious diseases and help in times of accidents. Inject 
instruction on health when convenient in connection 
with the study of the organs of the body. Illustrate 
by experiment when possible. General review, especi- 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 145 

ally the points concerning the nourishment and res- 
piration of plants and animals. 

The outline in nature study impresses one with the 
inclusiveness of the course. The elementary phases of 
animal life, plant life, physics, chemistry, and human 
physiology and health are made the objects of careful 
consideration. True this study in some cases is stiff, 
formal, meaningless, and without spirit because of not 
being connected with the vital interests of the pupils, 
but on the whole the work is brought very close home 
to their daily life. Through it the children are able to 
see the contributions to life and human welfare made 
by the innumerable things in man's environment. 

Throughout the primary grades the work is mostly 
devoted to descriptive studies. Considerable atten- 
tion is given also to the intrinsic value to man of ani- 
mals, plants, and natural forces, and the means he has 
found for utilizing them in his struggle forward. The 
nature lessons throughout the grades are enriched and 
enhvened by the use of well selected and carefully pre- 
pared appliances and models for demonstration. 
Whenever possil)le the living animals and plants in 
their natural habitat, forces as applied in the ma- 
chinery of neighboring institutions, and minerals in 
their successive processes of development and refine- 
ment are studied at first hand. Every school where the 
financial stringency is not too keen is provided with a 
liberal amount of apparatus for demonstrational pur- 
poses (anskuelsesmidler) . As an instance, every prim- 
ary school in the city of Christiania has at least one room 
of considerable size devoted exclusively to the storing 



146 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of this material. Maps, charts, mounted specimens, 
plates, preserved articles, and accessoiy materials are 
there in abundance, and provide minute representa- 
tions for most any point one might wish to make typical 
for illustration or study. The more genuine phases 
of laboratory work are not provided, though a consider- 
able amount of crude experimentation is done in the 
grades. 

The teacher presenting this course must be capable 
for he is the authority and guide back of all work done. 
Text books (good ones though condensed) play a part, 
but a much smaller part than would be the case in our 
American schools were similar instruction approached 
in a formal way. In other words, their teachers fur- 
nish the course and teach the subject, while too many of 
ours merely present the course provided in the adopted 
text book. 

Writing, drawing, vocal music, manual training, and 
gymnastics are also in the curriculum and each receives 
careful attention. Perhaps extended outlining of these 
courses and long discussions concerning them are im- 
necessary. Their importance and value are recognized. 
Their presentation in the schools of Norway is com- 
mendable, but some things must be passed without ex- 
haustive treatment. Only general statements will be 
given. 

The results in some lines — writing and drawing in 
particular — do not justify the amount of time devoted 
to them. The writing is mechanical throughout, and 
in the lower grades the requirements are altogether 
too exacting. Drawing is required of all alike. Those 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 147 

who have abihty in this hne of work perhaps receive 
too httle instruction; others, without talent or hking 
for it, regard it as a drudgery and, in the minds of some 
of their teachers, hinder the progress of the gifted. The 
finer coordinations required in both writing and draw- 
ing are frequently in advance of the development of the 
pupils and work injury rather than benefit. 

Vocal music is required of all and injures none. 
Probably each one reaps considerable benefit from the 
instruction. The class of music used in their teaching 
is very different from what is in vogue in our American 
schools. The church has exercised a great deal of in- 
fluence in this respect. Since church and state are 
united the music of the church forms a predominating 
portion of the music of the state schools. Psalms, 
chants, and songs of stately dignity constitute the bulk 
of their selections, while those of lighter strain are in- 
terspersed at intervals not too close together. In 
America our children's songs are more attractive from 
the "jingle" point of view. Our children like them 
better and are more anxious to sing them. The little 
Norwegians, too, are delighted when permitted to swing 
into the lighter strains of music. They love to sing. 
Their faces fairly glow as their mellow voices swell out 
whether they sing in a jingle or in the rich harmonies 
of their psalms. Common use of the better quahty 
of music cultivates their ability to appreciate and to 
render works of higher order than one usually finds in 
the schools of our own country. 

Manual and industrial training has had an important 
place in their schools for many years. Every hour 



148 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

spent at the bench is a dehght to the boys, while the 
girls enjoy equally well the privilege of sewing or cook- 
ing. These activities are certainly valuable in the 
training of the young, and their influences extend into 
the, homes of all the pupils. 

Gymnastics is the regular order for all pupils, A 
Swedish system of exercises is used which requires little 
apparatus but yields large returns. Abundant well- 
directed exercises of various kinds are provided for 
every pupil at stated periods and are entered into with 
zest. The regularity with which the gymnastic exer- 
cises are given doubtless has much to do in preserving 
the health of the children. As a class they are not 
only free from weaknesses but are vigorous and robust. 
Another part of their gymnastic work is the outdoor 
exercise which is required of all the pupils between the 
class periods. This doubtless adds much life and ani- 
mation to the entire school program. 

The course as a whole includes the fundamentals and 
chief essentials to educational activity. Those who 
pass through the primary schools obtain an intelligent 
appreciation of life and its meanings. They are able 
to meet common needs successfully and to attend to gen- 
eral affairs in an approved manner. The masses feel 
the necessity of the fuller life thus provided and in 
turn the school is admirably fitted to the task of de- 
veloping loyal and capable citizens. Furthermore, 
those who are so favorably situated that they may con- 
tinue in school longer than seven years and desire fit- 
ness for entrance upon the work of higher education 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 149 

find in the primary schools every opportunity to gratify 
their desires. 

The connection between the lower and higher schools 
was not at all satisfactory until 1896, when the Storthing 
readjusted the system. Since then pupils may pass 
regularly from the fifth grade of the primary school into 
the four year middle school, or after the completion 
of the seven grades of the primary school they may enter 
either a three or a four year middle school and finish 
in three years. Since the number desiring entrance to 
the middle school from the fifth grade is larger than can 
be accommodated, those of highest ranking education- 
ally are admitted. While the secondary school men 
claim perfect right to choose the fittest for entrance into 
their schools, the primary school men feel that their 
work in the sixth and seventh grades suffers injustice 
as a result of this selective process. The connection 
between the schools is not yet perfect and some unrest 
is evidenced in reference to the matter. The chief 
need seems to be an increase in the number of middle 
schools. 

in. THE MIDDLE SCHOOL 

The. Storthing, in 1896, passed a law defining the 
limits and work of the middle school. According to 
the enactment this school builds upon the foundation 
laid in the primary school and secures to the pupils 
a thorough general education suited to the needs and 
receptivity of childhood. The course of study offered 
may be of varied length, but in no case shall it exceed 



150 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

four years in duration. The four year course aims at a 
very natural connection with the work done during the 
first five years in the common school. Where the con- 
nection can be made with the work of later grades in 
the primary school, the course of the middle school may 
be correspondingly shorter. The aim and methods are 
in general similar to those in the lower school; though, 
of course, higher, more thorough and inclusive, and 
such as give deeper insight into all subjects of instruc- 
tion. It is required that instruction be given in reli- 
gion, Norwegian, German, English, history, geography, 
natural science, mathematics, writing, drawing, man- 
ual training, and vocal music. Instruction in domestic 
economy may be provided for the girls. 

Formerly all of these schools charged tuition; but, as 
the conditions in the commune gradually improved, 
provisions were made in some of them for the issuance 
of a certain number of free scholarships. These were 
usually governed in such a way that those most in 
need were the first to receive the benefits. From time 
to time scholarship funds were increased until now some 
communes provide free scholarships to all resident chil- 
dren. The city of Christiania has a three-year middle 
school building upon the foundation of seven years of 
primary work and charging no tuition whatsoever. 
This provision together with the building up of scholar- 
ship funds are forerunners of free entrance, probably, 
to all of the state's middle schools. As already stated, 
the work of the middle school overlaps in part that of the 
primary school. The course of study for Classes I and 
II is in a large measure a duplication of that provided 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 151 

for Classes VI and VII in the lower school. However, 
to present the work of the middle school adequately, 
it is essential that the course for the entire four years be 
here included. The state adopts a curriculum which is 
used in all of its secondary schools. Minor details 
such as texts vary in the different schools. The fol- 
lowing is an outline of the curriculum used in the 
Christiania Cathedral School. 

Religion 

Class I. (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History to the 
fall of the Kingdom of Judah. J. Sverdrup's Com- 
mentary to Article 2. Verses of hymns once each 
week. 

Class II. (Two hours.) Vogt's Bible History from 
"The Exile" to "The Story of the Passion." Com- 
mentary from Article 2 to "The Sacraments." Verses 
from hymns. 

Class III. (Two hours.) Bible History and Com- 
mentary completed and reviewed. Verses from hymns. 
Bible reading. 

Class IV. (One hour.) Y. Brun and Th. Caspari's 
Church History gone through and reviewed. Cursory 
study of the ecclesiastical year and the order of divine 
service. 

Here we note the beginnings of a more formal con- 
sideration of religion. A large part of the work is 
historical. Texts and lectures covering practically 
identical grounds form the basis of the work in this 
branch of study. The change to the more formal 



152 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

study of religion strikes the writer as a distinctive turn 
or transfer from moderately successful to useless en- 
deavor. The personal touch and human flavor at- 
tending the informal telling of Bible stories afford some 
genuine inspiration. Life touches life. When char- 
acter is exemplified in a living person or is sho^Ti 
through story once to have had expression in a fellow 
mortal, interest is awakened and the child instinctively 
imitates the vision before him. He transforms it into 
life. He enters into the spirit of the theme and the 
spirit giveth life. 

On the other hand, when religion is presented in a 
formal way, when an abstract view is taken, when the 
core of the subject is in the cold pages of texts, — ^then 
the letter killeth. Through force of habit the children 
retain some respect for the wishes of the teacher and 
do go through the motions of study and recitation, but 
the life of the subject is very soon extinguished and 
even respect for it vanishes in large measure. How- 
ever, in rare instances good results are obtained through 
the efforts of teachers who are especially well qualified 
for this work. 

The Mother- Tongue and Old Norse 

Class I. (Five hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader 
II. 2. Some of the Songs of the Fatherland learned 
by heart. Oral and written analysis. Hofgaard's 
Norwegian School Grammar, Paragraphs 1-31, 34-38, 
41, 45, 48-59, 61, 65, 76-79. The more important part 
of Hougen's Rules for Correct Writing. Written work 
(dictation and composition) each week. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 153 

Class II. (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's Reader 
11. 3. Poems — among them some of the Songs of the 
Fatherland learned by heart. Hofgaard's Grammar 
continued, also analyses. One written exercise each 
week (dictation and easy composition.) 

Class III. (Alternately three and four hours.) 
Pauss and Lassen's Reader III. Poems learned by 
heart — ^partly from Lassen 's Poems for Middle Schools, 
partly from Songs of the Fatherland. Certain parts 
of the grammar reviewed. Analyses now and then. 
About twenty written exercises, among them some 
dictations. 

Class IV. (alternating three and four hours.) 
Pauss and Lassen's Reader III. That portion from 
which the examination is taken, gone through and 
partly reviewed. Several poems committed to mem- 
ory. Fourteen written exercises. Among the topics 
used the following are typical: The summer vacation, 
the location of our city, Denmark, past and present 
lighting systems, animal life in our forests, reminis- 
cences from my earlier school days, birds and why we 
protect them, the Norsemen as seamen, Christiania 
in winter garb, Europe's natural conditions in prefer- 
ence to those of other continents. 

In harmony with the indications of the plan of in- 
struction, the early part of the work in the study of 
the mother-tongue is devoted to reading from selected 
texts. Simultaneously, grammar and rhetoric are 
carried along and put into use in written compositions 
which are frequent. Here, as in the primary schools, 
exact spelling, correct grammatical and rhetorical 



154 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

forms, and approved literary style are constant require- 
ments. The child is expected not only to read intel- 
ligently, but to express himself orally and in writing 
in a comprehensive manner and in such form as to ap- 
peal to the intelligence of others. Thus both in oral 
speech and through written composition the pupil 
is privileged to put his attainments into continuous 
use. They acquire the tools of thought and skill in 
handling them. 

German 

Class I. (Six hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen *s 
Reader from the beginning to the "Subjunctive." 
Written exercises. 

Class II. (Five hours.) Knudsen and Kristiansen 's 
Reader from "Subjunctive" to close of book. Voss' 
Reader in section A, seventy-six pages, in section B, 
fifty pages; one-half of these shall be learned by heart. 
Hofgaard's Short German Grammar the most import- 
ant forms. Written exercises. Rehearsals. Retro- 
versions. 

Class III. (Five hours.) Voss ' Reader, in section A, 
seventy-five pages, in section B, fiftj^-eight. Hof- 
gaard's Short German Grammar, inflections. In sec- 
tion B besides the above, paragraphs 140-148, 156,169, 
179-181. In addition section B shall have thirty-six 
pages of O. Kristiansen 's oral exercises and thirty- two 
compositions according to O. Kristiansen 's exercises 
in written work. In section A, written exercises, 
partly according to Kristiansen 's outlines for written 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 155 

work and partly reviews of the lessons in the reading 
book. 

Class IV. (Five hours.) Voss' Reader in section 
A, twenty pages, in section B, seventy-five. Repeti- 
tion of the portion designated for minutest study. The 
grammar reviewed. One or two written exercises each 
week according to Kristiansen 's outlines. 

The instruction in German proceeds in a very natural 
manner. The earlier lessons are devoted very largely to 
oral instruction in which the teacher takes the lead. 
Words, phrases, and sentences are given by the teacher 
for translation and concert repetition. Repitition and 
concert work are prominent in many places in the schools, 
but nowhere stressed to the same extent as in their 
language instruction. Concert work seems to stimu- 
late to freedom in pronunciation, while repetition af- 
fords the drill which is necessary to the required ac- 
curacy. Having had at least five years of thorough 
instruction in the mother-tongue the children are able 
to appreciate in a measure the meaning and importance 
of verb forms and other features of inflection so that 
they are ready to do consistent work in this phase of 
their study. In addition to the translations referred 
to, conversational exercises are soon introduced, and 
at the end of the second year some facility in easy con- 
versation is evidenced. Toward the close of the middle 
school the children are able to read the language wdth 
ease and to converse in it quite fluently. 



156 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

English 

Class II. (Five hours.) Brekke's Elementary 
Reader to page seventy- four, studied and reviewed, 
besides the grammar in the back of the book. Conversa- 
tional exercises and written work on the blackboard. 
During the last half year an occasional written exercise 
in a book. 

Class III. (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the 
Middle School, sixty-five pages read and reviewed. 
Knap's Grammar. One narrative per week. 

Class IV. (Five hours.) Brekke's Reader for the 
Middle School. Required portion read and reviewed, 
while the remainder of the book is gone through and 
in part read ex tempore. One narrative each week. 

The study of English proceeds along lines parallel 
to those followed in the German. The learning of the 
language is accomplished chiefly through its use. Ex- 
planations are made by using the more familiar words 
of the tongue studied, by circumlocutions, and by other 
similar practices. Grammar is resorted to as a means 
rather than an end. It is used only in facilitating the 
acquisition of the language, not as an end in itself. 
However, at the close of the course each pupil has be- 
come quite proficient in the grammar as well as in read- 
ing the language and in conversing in it. 

History 

Class I. (Three hours.) Nissen's History of the 
World by Schjoth, from the beginning until "Scan- 
dinavia in the Middle Ages." 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 157 

Class II. (Two hours.) Text as in Class I. From 
*' Scandinavia in the Middle Ages " to " Modern Times. " 

Class III. (Three hours.) Same Text. From 
" Charles V " to " The February Revolution. ' ' Review . 

Class IV. (Three hours.) Same Text. Reviewed 
in its entirety. 

The course in history is very rich and its study is 
entered into with animation. The teacher is usually 
a master in the subject and he makes the work of great 
profit. A considerable amount of the class period is 
devoted to a vivid and analytic introduction of the 
work to be done at the next meeting of the class, pre- 
paration for which shall be made in the meantime. 
Problems are presented and purposes are indicated so 
that the preparatory study may be done with some de- 
finite end in view. 

All facts of history are placed in appropriate settings 
and perspective, correlated into a unity, and given vital 
meaning. Maps, charts, and pictorial illustrations 
are provided in abundance and used constantly. 
Frequently historic scenes near at hand or laiown to 
the pupils are pointed out, minutely described, and 
visited. 

Teachers appeal to the sentiment of pupils with the 
aim of begetting loyalty for the fatherland in the 
hearts and minds of the young. I have heard instruc- 
tors grow eloquent as they warmed up on phases of 
Norway's history, and have noted the flushed cheeks 
and snapping eyes of the children that bespoke the 
national pride of the young hearts as familiar words, 
slogans, and songs of their heroes were quoted. 



158 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

When given an opportunity — a common occurrence — 
the pupils enter into the rehearsal of historic events with 
enthusiasm. Every mind in the room is active. They 
are awake to the situations and are familiar with the 
scenes and literature connected with the several stages 
of development. Replies given in response to questions 
from the teacher are nearly always in the form of narra- 
tives, sometimes occupying ten or fifteen minutes. 

General history or history of any foreign country is 
entered into in a spirit similar to that characterizing 
the consideration of their own. On one occasion I 
listened to a review on American history. Among the 
characters taken up were Grant, Lee, Harriet Beecher 
Stowe, and Lincoln. The pupils discussed Uncle Tom's 
Cabin with familiarity, Lee was considered as "The 
Napoleon of America, "but Lincoln was the one to whom 
most of the class period was devoted. At the close of 
the hour the teacher announced a lecture on "Abraham 
Lincoln" for the following Sunday evening in the 
Working- Men 's College (Arbeiderakademi)* of which 
he was the director. This incident illustrates the way 
in which they correlate the work of different educa- 
tional organizations, and shows their interest in the 
important events connected with the history of other 
nations. 

Geography 

Class I. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Nor- 
way and Sweden. Review. 

* An organization providing a series of weekly lectures by 
men of prominence from various places, for the populace and espe- 
cially adapted to the working classes. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 159 

Class II. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. From 
*'The Central European Mountams and Rivers" to 
"Asia." Studied and reviewed. 

Class III. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. The 
foreign continents. Studied and reviewed. 

Class IV. (Two hours.) Arstal's Geography. Re- 
peated or reviewed in its entirety. 

Two books are used in the study of this subject. 
One is made up entirely of well designed, carefully 
drawn, and thoroughly reUable maps, printed on a good 
quality of paper. The other is a text giving a good 
logical statement of what the course is calculated to 
include. The teacher must provide the major portion 
of the information by his own initiative and through 
cooperation of pupils. Illustrative material {Anskuel- 
sesmidler) is provided in great abundance and in diver- 
sified variety. 

An effort is made to impart to the pupils a satisfac- 
tory appreciation of the conditions prevailing in the 
countries connsidered. Their colonization, commerce, 
products, topography, political subdivisions, cities, 
population, river and momitain systems, climate, etc., 
are all carefully studied. The course begins with the 
geography of Norway. Next foreign lands and con- 
ditions are taken up and compared to situations at 
home. When the various countries on the globe have 
been kept for a time before the eyes, a thorough re- 
view is given which occupies the greater portion of the 
last year in the middle school course. 



160 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Mathematics 

Class L (Five hours.) Numbers resolved into fac- 
tors. Fractions. Some Proportion. 

Class II. (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
Eliassen's text. From beginning to division. Geom- 
etry: Bonnevie and Eliassen's text. From begin- 
ning to right lines divided into equal parts. Arith- 
metic: Proportion and percentage. 

Class III. (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
Eliassen's text. From division to equations with two 
unknowns. Geometry: Bonnevie 's text. From par- 
allelograms to Book IV. Drill in percentage and in- 
terest. 

Class IV. (Five hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
Eliassen's text. From equations with two unknowns 
to close of book. Geometry : Bonnevie 's text. From 
Book IV to close of text. Review of entire text. 
Drill in computing solids and other miscellaneous 
problems. A few hours devoted to bookkeeping. 

One of the most favorable features of their instruc- 
tion in mathematics is the intimate connection they 
make between the several phases of the subject. Arith- 
metic, algebra, and geometry are never wholly separated 
from each other. They are in reality interwoven and 
so definitely correlated that each contributes to the 
others. By constant use the several processes become 
familiar tools in the mental activities of the pupils. 
Mastery of the principles of the science and ability in 
their use are the ends to be attained. The outline of 
the course indicates the extent of the field receivmg at- 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 161 

tent ion. It is sufficient to say that the topics are all 
made to appear plain, definite, and vital; and that they 
are assimilated, and do become parts of the growing 
life. 

Nature Study {Natural Science) 

Class I. (Three hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. 
Written descriptions of about twenty-five plant forms. 
Zoology: Vertebrates according to Sorensen's text. 

Class II. (Two hours.) Botany: Sorensen's text. 
From "The Sunflower Family" to "Plant Structure." 
Plant analysis. Zoology: Sorensen 's text. "Inverte- 
brates." Review from treatise on insects to close of 
book. 

Class III. (Two hours.) Zoology and botany re- 
viewed. Plant analysis. Henrichesn's Physics. From 
beginning to "Properties of Air." 

Class IV. (Three hours.) Henrichsen's Physics 
studied through and reviewed with related laboratory 
work. Knudsen and Falch's The Human Body I 
studied and reviewed. 

The plan of work, as noted, includes botany, zoology, 
physics, and human physiology. Each subject is taken 
up and pursued in a consistent manner. In botany 
plant analysis and structure form the important part 
of the work. A herbarium is made by each pupil. 
The study is brought very definitely into the daily lives 
of the children with the intent of opening their eyes to 
the conditions in nature about them and of developing 
in them an appreciation of the almost unlimited pro- 



162 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

vision made for man's welfare. Zoology and phy- 
siology are treated in a similar way. They are cal- 
culated to enrich the life of the individual by bringing 
him into more sympathetic relations with all living 
forms. In physics the child does some experimental 
work and thereby gets first hand experience to accom- 
pany, clarify, and assist in evaluating the elaborated 
instruction of the teacher regarding forces, phenomena, 
and laws. 

It was interesting to note in a recitation chiefly de- 
voted to experimental work that the language used in 
conversation was carefully scrutinized and that errors 
were corrected. Throughout the curriculum a very de- 
finite effort is made to utilize every phase of informa- 
tion possessed by the pupils. 

IV. GYMNASIUM 

Religion 

Class I. (One hour.) Selected hymns, and chapters 
from the prophet Isaiah. 

Class II. (One hour.) Short survey of church his- 
tory. Brandrud 's text used by some of the pupils. 

Class III. (Two hours.) Short presentation of the 
Christian faith and ethics, without text. Survey of 
designated portions of John's Gospel, the Epistle to 
the Romans, and Revelations. 

The instruction in religion is commonly given by the 
city pastors. While all of these men are highly edu- 
cated, many of them lack the ability to awaken the 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 163 

minds of the pupils to an active interest in the subject. 
No examination in rehgion is required in the gymnasium. 
As a result of the formality in this teaching and the 
lack of incentives generally, the members of the classes 
are listless and inattentive. I insert a note that I 
made in reference to one class in which I was a visitor. 
"Most of the class was listless all of the time and all 
of them most of the time." I have on a few occasions 
heard short and irrelevant remarks made by pupils 
in response to direct questions by the instructor, and 
among the pupils it is accoimted no reflection whatever 
if any of their number states that he knows nothing re- 
garding the situation under discussion. The work ap- 
pears altogether void of interest and without profit. 

It seems almost pathetic that a subject of such im- 
portance should have its richness of content dissipated 
and wasted through lack of incentives or by reason of 
unsuccessful methods of presentation. My observa- 
tion of the work from the beginning of the primary 
school through all the classes up to the completion of 
the gymnasium convinces me that the personal and con- 
crete presentations in the lower grades are very success- 
ful but that the formal, authoritative work in the sec- 
ondary schools is little more than failure. 

Norwegian 

Class I. A and B (Four hours.) Pauss and Lassen's 
Reader IV. 1. Njael's saga. Holberg*s The Busy- 
bodies and Peter Paars. Part of Ohlenschlager 's Alad- 
din. Baggesen's Noureddin to Aladdin. Hertz's 



164 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM 0¥ NORWAY 

Svend Dyring's House. Also in A, Ibsen's Vikings at 
Helgeland; in B, Ibsen's The Feast at Solliaug; Bjorn- 
son's Synnove Solbakken. 

Landsmaal. Garborg and Mortensen's, Reader for 
Higher Schools. About forty pages from Aasen, Jan- 
son, Si vie, etc. 

Fourteen compositions in each class. Assigned exer- 
cises: Impressions from the summer vacations; what 
do we learn from Njaal's saga regarding life and cus- 
toms in Iceland about the year one thousand; a char- 
acteristic of the "Busybodies" by Holberg; Christiania 
as a city of manufacture and industry; a comparison 
between the east and west of Norway with references 
to nature and commerce; a painting I like; Norway as 
a tourist land ; do not put off until tomorrow what you 
can do today; why could not the Persians conquer 
the Greeks ; the dark sides of city life ; what circumstan- 
ces have combined in giving the Norsemen high rank- 
ing as seamen? 

Class II. R. G, (Five hours.) History of Litera- 
ture through the literature of the North, folk songs, a 
collection of Danish and Norwegian ballads, selections 
from Asbjornsen, Moe, and Holberg. Romance poetry, 
some read minutely and the rest cursorily. Considera- 
tion of Aasen and the Landsmaal movement. Sixty 
pages of Garborg and Mortenson 's Landsmaal. About 
twenty pages of Old Norse from Nygaard's beginner's 
book. 

Written exercises, frequently on topics of interest. 
Besides all this each pupil must give a discussion on a 
self-selected theme before the class. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 165 

Class II. L-H. (Six and five hours.) Holberg's 
Erasmus Montanus. Wessel's Kjaerlighed uden 
Stromper (Love without Stockings.) History of Htera- 
ture to about one thousand, eight hundred. Shakes- 
peare's JuHus Caesar. In the Landsmaal selections 
from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader (excepting folk 
songs.) Old Norse: Nygaard's beginner's book. 
Some pages from Thor to Utgard. Twelve written 
exercises on important literary, historical, and industrial 
subjects. 

Class III. R. G. (Four hours.) History of litera- 
ture from Holberg down to the present. Read scrutiniz- 
ingly selected writings of Holberg, Ohlenschlager, Werge- 
land, Welhaven, Asbjornsen and Ibsen. In the Land- 
smaal read from Garborg and Mortenson's Reader and 
the writings of Vinje. In the Old Norse read the re- 
mainder of Nygaard's beginner's book. History of 
language and history of literature. Many written 
exercises, largely literary and historical topics. 

Class III. L-H. (Five and four hours.) Special 
study of selections specified as examination material 
including the writings of Holberg, Wergeland, and Wel- 
haven. Landsmaal from Garborg and Mortenson's 
Reader. History of Literature. History of Language. 
Twelve written compositions on important topics. 

The work in literature throughout the gymnasium 
deals with the masterpieces of the language in an analy- 
tic and critical way. The aims are to familiarize the 
pupils with the best productions in the language, to 
acquaint them with the lives and historical relations 
of their authors, and to develop literary appreciation 



166 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

and style. Accordingly many writers are included, 
translations of world classics are utilized, history of 
literature in its connections with general history receives 
attention, and ability in composition is encouraged and 
required. 

Eddas, sagas, and the more important productions 
from successive periods are studied in minute detail. 
The Landsmaal is not neglected. When any piece of 
literature is under discussion, related historical events; 
references to other literary productions, characters, 
myths, etc.; the life of the author; and many other im- 
portant points are considered exhaustively. The in- 
tricacies of the language are sought out in patience and 
made familiar. Every known device for completing 
the literary background is utilized. Since the litera- 
ture of the country is a part of the life of its citizens, no 
effort is required to secure intense interest in the work. 

In the linguistic-historical course more time is de- 
voted to this branch of instruction than is given to it 
in the real and Latin courses. The quality or class 
of work is essentially the same though the quantity 
is necessarily less in the two latter courses. A definite 
effort is made to place each pupil in possession of the cul- 
ture represented in the national literature. 

German 

Class I. A and B (Three hours.) Gundersen's 
German for the Gymnasiums. A, sixty-seven pages, B, 
seventy-five pages, consisting of the following titles: 
Die Sanger, Die BurgschaJU Der Ring des Polykrates 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 167 

Der Handschuh, Die Sonne Bringt es an den Tag, Die 
Goldene Repetieruhr, Wie der Meisenseppe Gestorben ist, 
Umzingelty Der Stumme Ratsherr, Zur Geschichte des 
SO-jahrigen Krieges, Landsknecht und Soldat. In B 
review the more important features of syntax in O. 
Kristiansen 's Grammatical Exercises. 

Once every week a written review of a lesson read. 

Class II. (Three hours.) Gundersen's German for 
Gymnasiums, about one hundred pages. Fifteen writ- 
ten exercises, partly reproductions of new matter and 
partly write-ups of what has been studied. In real 
gymnasium some supplementary assignments in addi- 
tion (Das Schneeschuhlaufen, Die Lage Kristianias, etc.) 

Class III. (Alternating three and four hours.) 
Gundersen's German for Gymnasiums. Reading fin- 
ished and the greater part of it reviewed. Every 
second week a written review covering two consecutive 
hours. 

German is recognized as the language of a great 
neighbor nation and is assiduously studied. Much 
time has been spent in the middle school in acquiring 
the language and now three years are used in introducing 
the pupils into the thought-life and culture of the na- 
tion through the inner contact of its literature. Some 
of Germany 's more important authors are studied rather 
exhaustively. An endeavor is also put forth to become 
familiar with the most remarkable events in the history 
of that Empire. Through this advanced treatment 
they perfect their knowledge of the language as such, 
and further their ability to converse in the foreign 
tongue. 



168 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

French 

Class I. A (Four hours.) After the more important 
parts of phonology, Hermanstorff and Wallem's 
Reader in French for the Gymnasium I. pp. 18-108. 
The most essential parts of the grammar, together with 
many exercises in translation. While reviewing, special 
emphasis is placed upon reading exercises. 

Class I. B (Four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wal- 
lem's Reader I pp. 1-55 read and reviewed, together 
with the corresponding translations from Norwegian p. 
109 ff . In addition pages 98-108 are read and reviewed 
and most of the remaining exercises are gone through 
cursorily. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and Part 
V. 6-9 are studied. 

Class II. R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and 
Wallem's Reader II pp. 1-31 and 104-112. Grammar 
drill by references to synopses of grammar in the be- 
ginner's book. Wallem's Vocabulary Part I. 1 and 
V. 6-10 studied and reviewed. 

Class II. Lang. (With Latin five hours, without 
Latin four hours.) Hermanstorff and Wallem 's Reader. 
Division without Latin about eighty pages, consisting 
of Part I., the last section and Part II selections for A, 
I-VI for B, III, IV, VII, XL Division with Latin, 
the same amount excepting B, VII and XL Wallem's 
Vocabulary, review V. 6-9. 

Class III. R. G. (Two hours.) Hermanstorff and 
Wallem's Reader, about eighty pages. 

Class III. Lang. (Three hours.) Hermanstorff and 
Wallem 's Reader I, the last section and II for A, I-X 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 169 

and for B, I-XIII with the exception of a few selections 
such as X in A which is read only cursorily. As exer- 
cise in ex tempore translation use Duruy's History of 
France. 

About the same amount of French is taken in the 
Latin as in the real course of study though it is carried 
but for two years in the former and three in the latter.* 
More time is provided for it in the linguistic-historical 
course then in either of the others. Reference to the 
table on page 171 will indicate exactly the amount of 
time used and its distribution throughout the years. 

The French language is not as closely related to the 
Norwegian as are the German and English. Greater 
variations are noted both in pronunciation and in 
vocabulary. Almost universally the Norwegians re- 
gard it as the most difficult of the three foreign languages 
to acquire. 

The study of French is not begun until the pupils 
enter the gymnasium when they are fourteen or fifteen 
years old. English and German are begun three and 
four years before French. The teachers believe that a 
mistake is made in not beginning the study of French 
earlier. It is worthy of note that the Norwegian peda- 
gogues who have tried beginning instruction in the 
languages at different times in the school course are 
definitely of the opinion that to begin the study of a 
foreign language early is a distinct advantage. It 
seems to the writer that American schools might profit 
by this experience and introduce the study of languages 

in the lower grades. 

* The course with Latin includes 4 hours of French in the first 
year and 5 hours in the second; the real course oflFers it 4 hours in 
the first year, and 2 hours in the second and third years. 



170 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



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COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 171 

English 

Class I. (Four hours.) Brekke and Western's 
Selections from English Authors for the First Gymn- 
asium. The regulation sixty pages (matter from which 
examination is taken) is read and reviewed. Forty 
pages ex tempore. One synopsis or reproduction each 
second week. Knudsen's English Prepositions and 
Synonyms. 

Class II. R. G. and Latin (Two hours.) Brekke 
and Western's Selections for Second and Third Classes 
in the Real Gymnasium. Sixty-seven pages read and 
reviewed in part. Ex tempore: Called Back of Con- 
woy. 

Class II. L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and West- 
em's Selections from English Authors for Second and 
Third Linguistic-Historical Classes, one hundred and 
sixty pages. Merchant of Venice, Act I. Most of 
Brigadier Gerard by Conan Doyle. Western's 
English Institutions gone through. Otto Anders- 
sen's History of Literature to "Bacon." Written 
exercises each week. 

Class III. R. G. (Two hours.) Anderssen and 
Eitrem's Selection of Enghsh Classics, thirty-three 
pages. The portion from which selections are taken 
for the final examination {Artium Examen) reviewed 
in its entirety. Ex tempore: Called Back of Conwoy. 

Class III. L-H. (Seven hours.) Brekke and West- 
ern's Reader. Obhgatory, Selections 3, 4, 16, 17, 11, 
19. From Otto Anderssen 's English Literature the 
required amount: Swift, Byron, Thackeray, Merchant 



172 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of Venice. O. Anderssen's History of English Litera- 
ture. Western's English Listitutions. Written work 
each week. 

Class III. Latin (Two hours.) Anderssen and 
Eitrem's Selection of English Classics, forty-five pages. 
Review of selections from which examinations are taken. 

The connections the Norwegians sustain with the 
English speaking world are, perhaps, stronger than those 
binding them to any other people. Norway has close 
commercial associations with both England and 
America, and rarely does one find a family in Norway 
without near relatives in one or both countries. As a 
consequence, more than usual interest attaches to the 
study of English. Strenuous efforts are now being 
made to introduce it into the curriculumx of the elemen- 
tary school, and such change will probably be effected 
at an early date. 

According to the present plan those who graduate 
from the gymnasium have studied English six or seven 
years and have gained a fairly definite knowledge of it. 
They are able to read fluently and converse with ease. 
They have become familiar also with much of the best 
English literature, and through it have been brought 
into close touch with the life and culture of the English 
speaking peoples. 

Latin 

Class II. Latin (Seven hours.) Schreiner's Short 
Grammar. Inflection and some of the rules of syntax. 
Ording's elementary book. Ording's Latin Reading 
Selections, pp. 1-36. Written exercises each week. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 173 

Class III. Latin (Eleven hours.) Schreiner's Latin 
Reading Selections, pp. 30-67 and 73-88. Livy 
XXII., chapters 4, 9-15, 16-18, 10-28, 42-55. Cicero 
in Verrem IV., sections 1-14, 60-70, 72-81, 105-115. 
Schreiner's Short Grammar: Syntax. Forty written 
translations. 

Latin is included in the curricula of only about one- 
half of the gymnasia of Norway.* It is taught by com- 
petent teachers who appeal to the interests of the pupils 
through related history and literature, and through 
promise of linguistic excellence. The work is gone into 
thoroughly, drill is constant, and readiness in response 
is demanded. 

Despite the excellent quality of instruction there is a 
general feeling among the Norwegians that the study 
of Latin does not yield the immediate and substantial 
returns coming from other kinds of study. While they 
recognize that for advanced work in certain lines Latin 
is a prerequisite, they are convinced that, outside of 
those special lines of learning, contemporary tongues, 
history, biology, industrial chemistry, and other scienti- 
fic subjects are more beneficial. As a consequence this 
branch of study is on the decline. 

History 

Class I. (Three hours.) Ancient history as treated 
in Raeder's text. History of the middle ages up to the 

* A school law passed in 1896 omitted Latin from the course 
of study. Another act of the same Storthing granted privilege of 
offering Latin as an elective in several schools. 



174 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

second division from Schjoth and Lange's General 
History. 

Class II. R. G. and Latin (Three hours.) Schjoth 
and Lange's General History. History of the Middle 
Ages and of Modem times until the Vienna Congress. 
History of Scandinavia until 1720. Survey of its more 
important portions — oral or written. 

Class II. L-H. (Five hours.) History of the Mid- 
dle ages down to the French Revolution from Schjoth 
and Lange's General History. History of Scandinavia 
to 1720. In addition use two hours per week in his- 
torical readings including such topics as the feudal 
system, medieval poetry, the university, Venice, crafts- 
men and merchants in the middle ages, Fredrik II., Han- 
seatics and aristocracy in the north, WiUiam Pitt. 

Class III. L-H. (Five hours.) Schjoth and 
Lange's General History finished. Scandinavian his- 
tory in the nineteenth century. Review of all require- 
ments. Taranger's Social Conditions or Civics. His- 
torical readings including introduction to the French 
Revolution, state rights in Norway, general culture and 
political development in our time, Norway in 1814, 
historical events. 

Class III. Real and Latin. (Three hours.) His- 
tory of Norway since the treaty of Kiel in 1814, and the 
history of Europe after the Vienna Congress, using 
Schjoth and Lange's General History. The more im- 
portant features are presented in oral synopses. Be- 
sides this Taranger's Civil Government of Norway. 

The study of history in the gymnasium builds very 
definitely upon the foundations laid in the primary 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 175 

and middle schools. The supposition is that the pupils 
are by this time capable of getting from texts the in- 
formation they contain. 

The class periods are devoted partially to texts of 
lesson preparation, but mostly to free discussion and to 
presentation of relevant material by the instructor. 
Bits of information regarding the private life of his- 
torical characters, minor incidents in their careers, and 
varied personal touches given by the teacher infuse 
spirit and vitality into the entire course. The lessons 
are brought directly home to the pupils and they are 
able to appreciate the fact that they are inheritors 
of past accomplishments and participants in present 
activities. Some of the most interesting and enthus- 
iastic recitations I visited were in history. 

All through the course in history Norway is given 
first attention and consideration. Its history is begun 
first, all along it is made the center around which the 
history of other nations is grouped, and finally it is 
given the concentrated, mature, and crowning efforts 
of those pursuing the long course of instruction. The 
closing year is generally devoted to a study of social and 
political conditions in the fatherland. Norway's con- 
stitution with its many provisions and administrative 
features of government (general and local) is given to 
the youths in clear, concrete, and concise presentations. 
Upon leaving the gymnasium the young people, there- 
fore, are in a position to appreciate the meaning, privi- 
leges, and responsibilities of citizenship. While they 
have their affections centered in their native land, they 



176 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

are able to comprehend the relative accomplishments, 
standing, and conditions of other countries. 

Geography 

Class I. (One hour.) Haffner's Physical Geography. 

Class II. (One hour.) Steen's Mathematical Geog- 
raphy. Completed and reviewed. 

Class III. (Two hours.) Arstal's Economic Geog- 
raphy. Review all requirements. 

The gymnasial course in geography includes physical 
geography, astronomy, and political geography. It 
is rich and profitable. Under the head of physical 
geography are included such topics as physiography, 
petrography, dynamic geology, history of the world's 
development, the earth's surface, oceanography, and 
the atmosphere. While only a general survey of the 
respective fields is possible, the pupils obtain a pretty 
fair grasp of fundamentals and feel that they have a 
very good and adequate idea of what their home — the 
earth — really is. 

The work in astronomy or mathematical geography, 
as it is frequently called, is concerned chiefly with the 
earth's place in the universe, the Copernican system, 
Keppler's laws, the moon, the earth (form, size, and 
motion), the celestial world in general, the sun's ap- 
parent motion, the sun as a measurer of time, etc., etc. 

Political geography provides acquaintance with the 
earth in special reference to man's presence and wel- 
fare. It treats of his means of livelihood, ways of com- 
munication, and the conditions under which he colon-- 
izes, builds up cities, and develops generally. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 177 

Mathematics 

Class I. (Four hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie and 
Berg's text. From beginning to "Series." Geom- 
etry: Bonnevie and Sorensen's text. Entire text 
covered and reviewed. Examples at home and at 
school. 

Class II. Real (Six hours.) Algebra: Bonnevie 
and Berg's text. From "Series" to end of text. 
Trigonometry: Johannesen's text. Completed and re- 
viewed. Stereometry: Guldberg's text. Completed 
and reviewed. Analytical Geometry: Guldberg's 
text. From beginning to "The Ellipse." Problems 
at home and at school. 

Class II. Linguistic (Two hours.) Algebra: Bon- 
nevie and Berg's text. "Series." Trigonometry: O. 
Johannesen's text. Solving of problems. 

Class III. Real (Six hours.) Guldberg's Analyti- 
cal Geometry. E. Hoist's Higher Arithmetical Series. 
Review of all requirements in real course. Solution of 
problems. 

Class III. Linguistic (Two hours.) Review of the 
entire requirement. Examples at home and at school, 
rf In addition to completing the work begun in the 
middle school in arithmetic, algebra, and geometry; 
instruction in the gymnasium includes trigonometry, 
stereometry, analytical geometry, and higher arith- 
metical series. The methods of instruction are the 
same as those used in the middle school though, of 
course, adapted to the greater maturity and stronger 
mentality of the pupils. By the time pupils enter the 



178 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

gymnasium considerable ability should have been 
gained in working independently. Where necessary, 
the teacher cooperates in solving problems and makes 
sure that the principles involved are thoroughly under- 
stood. 

Frequently during the recitation period several mem- 
bers of the class are called to the blackboard, one at a 
time, to perform operations under consideration. As 
the pupil develops the problem he explains every step 
taken as he proceeds. The other pupils observe closely, 
take notes, and offer suggestions. The instructor care- 
fully supervises every move, giving explanations when 
necessary not permitting erasures or leaving any opera- 
tion until all in the class understand fully. In this 
way hearty cooperation is secured. Every mind is 
actively engaged and the excellent results testify of the 
validity of the method. 

Work in analytical geometry and higher arithmetical 
series is taken only by those in the real course of in- 
struction. 

Natural History 

Class I. (Four hours.) Chemistry: Waage's The 
Chemistry of Daily Life. Gone through and reviewed. 
Physiology: Knudsen and Falch's The Human Body 
II. Studied and reviewed. 

Class II. Real (Five hours.) Isaachsen's Physics. 
From the beginning to "Heat." Review after having 
carefully studied. Exercises at home and at school. 
Botany: Th. Resvoll's text. Completed and re- 
viewed. 



COURSES OF STUDY IN STATE SCHOOLS 179 

Class II. Linguistic (One hour.) Botany: Res- 
voU's text. Completed and reviewed. 

Class III. Real (Five hours.) Isaachsen's Physics. 
From "Heat" to end of text. Entire text reviewed. 
Zoology: Chr. Bonnevie's text. Studied and re- 
viewed. Botany: Th. Res voll's text reviewed. 

Class III. Linguistic (One hour.) Zoology: Chr. 
Bonnevie's text. Studied and reviewed. Botany: Th. 
Resvoll's text reviewed. 

Natural Science or Nature Study in the earlier years 
of school life is less differentiated than it becomes in the 
gymnasium. Here we find the fields very definitely 
separated. The more important chemical laws, animal 
and vegetable development and growth (botany and 
zoology), and the more essential features of human 
physiology and hygiene form centers of attention 
throughout the three years. In the real course physics 
also is stressed, though in the other courses of study 
little time is provided for it. 

Not as much is made of the laboratory method as 
seems advisable. While every school has some pro- 
vision for it they do not go at it in real earnest. Only 
one or two at a time can do first hand work. The 
others cooperate mentally and get some benefit, but 
they cannot reap the greater results which immediate 
individual experimentation yields. 

One day during the progress of a lesson in zoology 
(where I was a visitor) a supply of live specimens ar- 
rived from the marine biological station at Drobak, and 
the remaining portion of the hour was devoted to in- 
vestigations at close range. Interest was intense. 



180 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Pupils dipped in (literally) and investigated at their own 
pleasure quite informally. The material was soon 
divided up into several receptacles, and around each 
of these gathered an eager group in an effort to use, 
handle, and examine every specimen. Those who had 
no interfering appointments for the succeeding hour 
accomited it a great favor to be privileged to continue 
this study for an extra class period. This is but one 
illustration of the interest attending laboratory work 
where each pupil may handle and examine for himself — 
where he may be a doer, an active participant instead of 
merely an observer. 



Chapter IV 
INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 

THIS chapter is for the consideration of some of 
the more important phases of the school system 
presented in greater detail in the foregoing 
chapters. The aim is to bring some features of 
Norway's system under close inspection, to interpret 
them in the light of commonly accepted pedagogical prin- 
ciples, to make comparisons between them and our own, 
and to suggest possible improvements where they seem to 
be needed. It is clearly evident that school practices ad- 
mirably adapted to the social conditions in one country 
may be far from desirable in another. On the other hand, 
it is well-known that some educational means may be 
equally suitable in more than one country. Further- 
more, certain fundamental principles are effectual wher- 
ever education is attempted. We shall hope to find 
some things worthy of being adopted bodily by us and 
others capable of transformation into shapes calculated 
to improve our educational practices. 

THE PEOPLE AND THEIR IDEALS 

The Norse are a sturdy race having potentialities cap- 
able of great accomplishment when once aroused and 
rightly directed. Conditions prevented these capacities 
from functioning with freedom until the middle of the 

181 



182 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

last century when the store of energy which had accum- 
ulated during preceding decades and centuries asserted 
itself and effected a rapid rise in the political and intel- 
lectual status of the nation. 

It is believed that Norway is now in a period of transi- 
tion from a condition of mediocrity to one of eminence 
among the nations of the world. Politically, ethically, 
and educationally she assumes larger proportions daily. 

As individuals the Norwegians are recognized among 
the leaders in literature, art, and science, and equal to 
any as pioneers in the development of the rich frontiers. 
As citizens they are enthusiastically welcomed every- 
where. Climatic conditions and habits of life have 
'given them the sturdiness of physique and vigor of 
mind which make them fearless and midaunted in the 
face of great undertakings and critical situations. They 
have become habituated to overcoming all obstacles 
in their way, and they naturally concentrate their ener- 
gies for the achievement of their desired ends. 

It is reasonable to expect similar traits in them as a 
nation. Their past actions declare these same tenden- 
cies and their present attitudes confirm the observer 
in the belief that the history of Norway will continue 
the story of regular and ever higher development. Their 
strongly democratic individuality seems to have been a 
factor in enabling them to realize and recognize their 
self in a very successful way. Matters of importance 
put the entire state into action and it ploughs through 
to the bottom of things. While very conservative, the 
state will not permit precedent to stand in the way 
of accepting new conditions when they are proven 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 183 

superior to the old. After thorough examination of 
every detail it passes judgment on the situation and 
then stands on that solution. Conservation has been 
an operating principle with them all along the line. A 
step in advance, some worthy achievement, new or 
loftier ideals, greater political freedom, and the like 
when once gained are always retained. 

The union of church and state for example has been 
to their advantage. Matters of religion and politics 
were handled by the same hands and as a consequence 
both were strengthened. Each found in the other 
sources of inspiration and power. They both recog- 
nized education as a necessary fundamental means for 
their preservation and advancement. Acting in the 
main on the educational ideals of Martin Luther the 
church accepted the chief responsibilities in the direc- 
tion of school activities, while the state very cheerfully 
undertook the burden of their support. Through the 
processes of growth direct responsibilities have been 
more and more shifted to the state, though the church 
continues to exert very strong influence and render 
every possible assistance. 

Resulting from this cooperative activity a system of 
education has evolved which is effectual in the improve- 
ment of the state and in the maintenance of the noblest 
ideals of the church. According to its design this sys- 
tem of schools qualifies all children in the land for in- 
telligent citizenship, and prepares them severally for 
the performance of every function of state, the service 
of the church, and for the various arts, professions, and 
other occupations of life. In other words, Norway pro- 



184 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

vides for her children educational advantages suitable 
to every legitimate requirement or desire. Thus its 
school system develops a loyal, well-trained citizenship 
capable of maintaining its highest ideals and eager to 
cooperate in moving the fatherland forward into greater 
and nobler achievement. 

FACILITIES FOR EDUCATION 

To satisfy the varied requirements of the nation along 
the line of educational facilities it has been necessary to 
establish a complex system of diversified schools. Fund- 
amental in the system are the 'primary schools providing 
the thorough elementary training so essential and effect- 
ual m the qualifying of citizens. Following these are the 
secondary schools — middle school and gymnasium — which 
afford the advantages of higher education along the 
more liberal lines. Besides these are the many institu- 
tions — public and private — ^for technical and profes- 
sional study. There are general technical schools, 
schools of trades and manual arts, agricultural and 
horticultural institutions, naval and military academies, 
schools of art, teachers ' colleges, a technical high school 
— an engineering college and institute of technology of 
high rank — in the city of Trondhjem, and the Royal 
Frederik University in Christiania which is devoted to 
specialized study and research in science, letters, and 
learned professions, including theology, law, medicine, 
and education. The last is provided for in the af- 
filiated Pedagogical Seminary recently established. 

At this point we may speak a word in commendation 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 185 

of the important part played by private institutions in 
Norway. Among them may be enumerated primary 
and secondary schools, teachers' seminaries, and tech- 
nical institutes. Being of high merit and operating side 
by side with the state schools, they have rendered valu- 
able service and exerted a wholesome influence. The 
state has recognized their work and expressed its appre- 
ciation of their efforts by giving them standing and by 
voting annuities to certain of them. 

The uniformly high standard of preparation required 
for entrance to and the close correlation between the 
several special schools make easy the passage from one 
to another when it is desired, and give solidarity and 
unity wherein cooperation is natural and mutually 
beneficial. 

It should be noted that provision is made for the 
proper care of the exceptional child in Norway. This is 
more particularly true of the defective. The child who 
is dull of comprehension along some lines receives in- 
dividual assistance from his regular teacher or another 
who is employed to do the work. Recognition is given 
to disparity in physiological and mental age of children. 
Those who are definitely lacking in mentality are segre- 
gated into classes in the large schools and into separate 
schools in the larger cities, where they are provided 
with abundant, well-selected equipment and expert 
teachers who exert every effort to improve the condi- 
tions and to overcome the handicaps of the unfortu- 
nates. Morally delinquent children are placed in 
children's homes — homes for correction — where they 
are supervised and taught. Each child is placed luider 



186 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

the conditions best suited to his needs — where he will 
be most profited. All of this work comes under the 
authority of the school oJBScials, and as a result there is 
close coordination between the regular and the special 
schools. 

Not only do these officials care for the mentally and 
morally delinquent but they are also authorized and 
required to take children from environments that are 
likely to develop evil and lawless traits. Unfit parents 
may be deprived of the control and authority over their 
offspring who are taken and placed in private homes of 
moral influence or in children's homes where they re- 
ceive proper care and training. Being vested with 
such authority the school officials are able to do much 
toward the prevention of delinquency as well as to at- 
tend specifically to the individual cases where a lack 
of moral responsibility is evidenced. 

Here are wholesome lessons for our American schools. 
Instead of giving sufficient individual help or providing 
expert teachers for the less intelligent, we permit them 
to become repeaters or to drop out altogether; in place 
of taking the child from an evil environment before he 
becomes a moral delinquent and placing him under 
moral surroundings in some good home, we hesitate 
to interfere with parental rights — as though they were 
greater than social — and permit him to become a law- 
breaker; and rather than give to school officials the 
authority and necessary equipment to care rightfully 
for the child who has committed some error, we place 
him in the hands of the law and he is probably sent to 
a reformatory having neither facility for his proper 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 187 

treatment nor any connection with the schools what- 
soever. 

Closer co-ordination of these educational functions 
and institutions would prevent much misfortune, cure 
a vast amount of misery, and accomplish more effi- 
cient results. 

DIRECTING AUTHORITY AND MANAGEMENT OF SCHOOLS 

Norway's educational authority is definitely centralized 
in the person at the head of the Department of Eccle- 
siastical and Educational Affairs, who is a member of 
the King's cabinet. The several departments, bureaus, 
commissions, and boards for control are radiations 
from this central focus. Furthermore, their schools 
are parts and parcels of one very definite, though 
somewhat complex, system; each class of schools, in 
its respective field, is ordered according to certain 
specifications; and all are co-ordinated so as to result 
in a imified whole without overlapping, or exposure 
of ragged and loose ends. 

The controlling features of greater importance such 
as curriculum, appointment of teachers, plans of 
instruction, and the determination of qualifications 
for teaching positions are in the hands of the higher 
authorities. In effect the state determines the policies, 
the officers are expected to respect them, and the 
patrons exercise but little direct control. For example, 
the law provides that completion of certain grades of 
school work shall mean practically the same through- 
out the country, that the middle school and gymna- 



188 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

sium examinations shall be uniform everywhere in the 
state, that standards of academic fitness for teaching 
positions must be the same, and that teachers' salar- 
ies shall not be below a certain minimum amount. 
Local opinion never has a thought of departing from 
these requirements. 

Being vested with considerable authority the 
school officials are able not only to make suggestions 
and recommendations, but also to enforce all school 
regulations. This plan is successful in securing the 
most efficient service of which the officials are capable. 
They are expected to pursue their duties and perform 
their obligations according to directions without being 
too largely influenced by the opinions of individuals 
or community sentiment. Local politics plays a very 
small part in determining what shall be the educa- 
tional trend, though the patrons of the school do 
enjoy considerable liberty and bear some responsibil- 
ities in arranging minor factors with reference to local 
situations. 

We Americans might avoid a vast amount of 
leakage and unnecessary expenditure by improved 
organization of our educational institutions. A uni- 
fied system of education, manned by competent officials 
with some authority, might easily raise the standard 
of efficiency of our schools several grades, and at the 
same time reduce the proportional cost. President 
Hall has given optimistic expression along this line. 
He writes: — "The time is not far off when we shall 
co-ordinate all educational agencies for all classes of 
children of school age. . . . AH . . . insti- 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 189 

tutions for the care and betterment of the bodies, 
minds or morals of children should correlate their 
work so that eventually it may all become so consoli- 
dated that each child can be placed in that position 
in the whole great system which will do most and 
best for it at each stage and so that changes from one 
to the other can be made whenever it becomes for the 
welfare of the child. . . . Diversities of agencies, 
aims and method should increase; and incorrigibles, 
defectives, homeless, neglected, backward children and 
the rest should each have special provision; but in- 
tegration should keep pace with this differentiation."* 

Were our public schools, reformatories, schools 
for defectives, etc., etc., all combined into one system 
they might perform their offices more effectively than 
they do now. Instead of permitting each to run along 
independent of the rest, they should be made to sup- 
plement each other. 

Again, it is a matter of common knowledge that 
in our own country high school graduation, qualifica- 
tions for teaching positions in the several grades of 
school work, college entrance requirements, college 
degrees, etc., are without uniform standardization. At 
present even a college degree has meaning only when 
the work and equipment of the institution granting 
it have been carefully estimated; state teachers' cer- 
tificates may or may not be valid in other states; and 
reciprocity among the states in recognizing certificates 
is not in operation generally. While state certificates 
are not always demanded, some of the states are now 
*Hall, G. Stanley, Educational Problems. Vol. I. p. 294. 



190 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

requiring that all teachers in the high schools must 
be college graduates. In all too many instances the 
only effectual prerequisite to obtaining a position as 
teacher in the schools — primary or secondary — is the 
vote of the school directors. The gradation of educa- 
tional activity according to a fixed basis and the rais- 
ing of standards in academic and pedagogical prepar- 
ation and in personal fitness for teaching positions 
would make the schools vastly greater factors in the 
country's progress and do the nation an inestimable 
service. 

Centralization and uniformity in authority and 
purpose are distinctly evident in every school activity 
in Norway. The authority of the state is clearly 
stamped on the work of every official from the direct- 
ing head to the last in position. Everyone connected 
with the system feels the obligations of the position 
occupied and, at the same time, recognizes his own 
security while keeping within the limits of the law. 
They all concentrate their energies in an earnest en- 
deavor to realize the ends which the educational sys- 
tem is designed to reach. Even individual subjects 
of instruction are presented for specific purposes which 
in turn contribute to the general end to be reached 
through the course of study as a whole. Purposes, 
aims, and ends are always in the foreground of atten- 
tion, and when teacher and pupils co-operate and are 
actuated by common ideals, their efforts are sure to 
be vital and successful. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 191 

teachers' training 

Proper pedagogical training is perhaps the 
most potent factor for good in educational ac- 
tivity. But few systems, if any, adequately meet 
the needs along this line. Some are well supplied 
with institutions devoted to the training of teachers 
so far as their number and distribution are concerned 
but they are lacking in quality; others have training 
schools very high in quality but they are poorly dis- 
tributed and insufficient in number. 

The ideals and equipment of these special institu- 
tions are factors of prime importance in determining 
their real values. These center in the personnel of the 
directing and teaching force. Too frequently thorough 
scientific preparation for the specific work of supervis- 
ing and instructing in teachers' seminaries is wanting. 
Natural endowment coupled with long, varied, and 
successful experience has been regarded as sufficient 
qualification. To be sure, native ability is an abso- 
lute essential; experience is of immeasurable value; 
but intensive scientific research in the fields of child 
nature and development, psychology, and pedagogi- 
cal principles, together with scientific methods, are 
equally indispensable. 

Now it is a truism that teachers teach as they 
have been taught. Hence, to achieve greatest results, 
prospective teachers should secure their education 
(general and professional) from ideal teachers as far 
as possible and obtain experience through practice 
teaching under the personal supervision of masters 



192 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

in education. Preparing under such conditions, their 
natural capabihties would be brought more nearly to 
maximum efficiency and they would become powers 
for good in the profession. To have seminaries so 
distributed and equipped that all prospective teachers 
might have the best training within easy access would 
be an ideal condition. 

Germany affords an unparalleled example in the 
development of teachers' seminaries. No other na- 
tion ever had a system of training schools as efficient 
as the one there provided. Her right to the title of 
"School mistress of the world" is in large measure 
traceable to the excellent training provided for and 
required of the teachers m the schools. 

Norway early recognized the importance of this 
phase of school work and established six teachers' 
seminaries. Subsequently four private seminaries have 
been opened and the state has instituted the Peda- 
gogical Seminary in affiliation with the university in 
Christiania. This gives them a liberal number of train- 
ing colleges well distributed. While they are subject 
to some adverse criticism for failure to keep pace 
with the development of their school system as a 
whole, we must admit that the excellent results achieved 
by the schools of Norway are due largely to the early 
provision of these seminaries and insistence upon spec- 
ial training for teaching positions. 

It is probable that certain normal schools of the 
United States deserve the honors so far as ideals and 
results are concerned even though we have jaccorded 
first ranking in system to Germany. Our plan, however, 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 193 

is too individual in nature to accomplish greatest 
good. We lack a centralized authority with power to 
do things. We have practically no co-ordination be- 
tween state systems and no uniformity. Even in 
certain states the several schools do not co-operate 
or supplement each other as they should. The waste 
occasioned by the looseness of our system is enormous. 
Could we unify our resources, systematize our equip- 
ment, and provide efficient direction along co-oper- 
ative lines of activity, the American schools would 
advance by leaps and bomids such as have not been 
known up to the present time in any nation. 

A word is in place here with reference to the 
process of obtaining professional preparation. One 
of the best things to be gained by special training is 
a professional attitude toward the work of teaching. 
This cannot be attained by spasmodic effort but must 
be grown into. It comes rather as a result of long- 
continued study and application of principles than by 
intensive training for a short while. Direct instruc- 
tion and experiment extended over a long period of 
time affords opportunity for innumerable associations 
and interrelations which no "hurry-up" process can 
provide. When professional training and study along 
the general lines of academic learning parallel each 
other they become interwoven in such a way that 
each contributes to the other, and simultaneously the 
proper attitude with respect to educational processes 
becomes a very real part of the student's life. 

There are a number of important pedagogical 
principles which should become ingrained in the life 



194 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

of the individual in order that he make a success in 
the teaching profession. It is a generally conceded 
and commonly practiced rule in education that to 
thoroughly master any field of knowledge and really 
get into its vital parts it is necessary to keep the mind 
acting upon it, at least intermittently, through several 
years of time. Principles acted and reacted upon, 
viewed in this light and that, examined under a cer- 
tain condition and then another, and tested in various 
ways may result very differently in one's life than 
when given a hurried, even though intensive, examina- 
tion. They are certain in the one instance to sink 
deep into the life of the individual while in the other 
case they may or may not affect his behavior. 

It seems, therefore, that if the excellent features 
which now characterize Norway's Pedagogical Semi- 
nary might be carried along through the whole or a 
large part of the college course, or if the work of the 
seminary might be supplemented by studies such as 
principles of education, history of education, child 
study, and psychology, carried along with the college 
work the results would be more effectual — ^the prepara- 
tion for teaching more thorough. However, consider- 
ing the short time that has elapsed since the founding 
of this Seminary, its work is of high order and its 
ideals are praiseworthy. The expressed intent of the 
director is to develop the field as rapidly as possible 
until it shall be characterized by the best means of 
professional training known to the science. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 195 

THE teachers' LIFE 

The life of the teacher is one of service, 
calling for an expenditure of the self to an ex- 
tent perhaps greater than any other profes- 
sion. Among the Norse, however, it is not as stren- 
uous as that experienced in American schools. The 
Norwegian teachers have more time than we for recre- 
ation, self-improvement, or any of the activities 
opened up by leisure hours. Life generally is set at 
a more moderate pace with the Norsemen than with 
the rushmg Americans, and the schoolmen enjoy the 
attendant advantages along with those in other pro- 
fessions or occupations. 

While leisure among certain classes leads to idle- 
ness and corruption, it has quite opposite results 
among the better class of citizens. Windelband says 
that "The cultured man is he who in his leisure does 
not become a mere idler." The cultured men of the 
past have in their leisure developed science, art, liter- 
ature, and philosophy. They have had reserve energy 
after the performance of their regular labors to use 
in fruitful, self-selected activities. There are always 
innumerable avenues through any one of which an 
earnest servant of the state may bring great gain to 
its people. 

There is no nobler profession than that devoted 
to the development of youth; neither is there any 
occupation which brings more satisfying recompenses. 
The child is the most precious asset of the nation and 
deserves the maximum service possible for teachers 



196 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

to render. To perform the most efficient service the 
teacher should have health, vigor, and time for recre- 
ation in addition to scholastic and professional quali- 
fications. When school authorities make conditions 
conducive to these ends, the results will be of such 
character that teachers, pupils, patrons, and communi- 
ty will all obtain greater profits. 

Where school activities are not overtaxing, the 
teacher has opportunity to build up his physical being, 
increase the buoyancy of his spirits so as to enthuse 
his pupils to a greater extent, or improve his educa- 
tional qualifications. One may concentrate his efforts 
along some given line of research and from day to day 
give the pupils under his tuition the benefits derived from 
these specialized efforts. An individual by persistent 
study may become the discoverer of new laws or 
truths which reach the ends of the earth and pro- 
foundly influence human affairs. Whatever the par- 
ticular activity, leisure consecrated to the uplift of 
mankind is sure to result in great good. 

When institutions drive their servants to the 
limit of their powers they must inevitably be the 
losers in the long run. They extinguish the light of 
ambition, reduce to machines the individuals who 
should be contributors to human progress, and make 
legion "the man with the hoe." Such practice in 
our schools results in waste of energy, depletion of 
our teaching force, and irretrievable loss in many ways. 

It is my candid opinion that the rapidity of the 
evolution of the Norwegian school system, its excel- 
lencies, and the highly satisfactory results coming 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 197 

from it are in large measure due to the fact that it 
does not overtax the powers of its teachers and edu- 
cational leaders, but on the contrary allows them 
opportunity for the exercise of initiative and encour- 
ages a professional attitude towards their work. 

THE CURRICULUM 

The course of instruction in the primary 
and secondary schools of Norway is uniform 
for all pupils except in the second and third 
years of the gynmasium where diverse lines of study 
are offered. The arrangement is unfortunate in that 
the individual is sometimes required to pursue sub- 
jects of study for which he has no adaptability and in 
which he can develop no interest. Teachers in Nor- 
way tell me that this requirement is a great handicap; 
retarding the progress of the class, demoralizing the 
individual, and increasing the burden of the teacher. 
More flexibility in this regard would doubtless be an 
advantage. The elective system, so common in our 
own schools, when rightly supervised preserves suflSc- 
ient coherence between the studies taken up and gives 
opportunity for more perfect adjustment. 

Not only in the course of study but also in organ- 
ization, plans of instruction, and equipment, the schools 
of Norway are too uniform to result in the freest de- 
velopment of the intellect, the richest growth of indi- 
viduality, or the greatest conservation of time, energy, 
or money. There are a few variations from their 
regular routine but these are not sufficiently numerous . 



198 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

One favorable innovation is the promotion of 
teachers along with classes through a part or all of 
the primary school. The consensus of opinion seems 
to be that better results accrue when a teacher con- 
tinues with a class through several years of work. 
This plan is generally followed unless the special fit- 
ness of a teacher for work within particular limits 
renders it highly advisable for assignment to be made 
to such place. While special aptness for a particular 
class of instruction should be recognized, the promot- 
ing of teachers along with classes generally obviates 
any tendency to staleness and usually emphasizes 
special qualifications. 

While it would be interesting to discuss the meth- 
ods used in presenting each subject in the curriculum 
a few must suffice. 

Religious Instruction and Moral Education 

The church was first to establish schools in Nor- 
way, putting them into operation in connection with 
their cathedrals, probably about the middle of the 
twelfth century. The chief aim was to prepare the 
pupils for a religious life, either as ministers or as 
faithful disciples. Having these as definite ends, 
the materials for study were selected because of their 
fitness to contribute along these lines. Instruction 
was almost wholly in religion. Since morality is such 
a fundamental part of religion, moral education in 
large amount was given indirectly. The aim was 
religion and the result was both morality and relig- 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 199 

ion. Schools came to be generally regarded as insti- 
tutions wherein moral and religious instruction were 
the prevailing if not the dominating features. This 
phase of work early became traditional and gained 
such momentum that it has ever formed a conspic- 
uous part of every grade of instruction throughout 
the primary and secondary schools. 

During the formative period the instruction in 
religion maintained a vitality which was quite in keep- 
ing with the demands of the times. However, as the 
school system developed, especially during the clos- 
ing half of the last century, it became necessary to 
arrange more definite plans of instruction in religion 
as well as in other subjects in the school curriculum. 
The adapting of instruction to the various grades of 
school work was a diflacult task. The adjustment 
made to needs in the primary schools seems a very 
happy one. In this elementary section of the school 
system the instruction in religion consists mainly in 
story telling. The work is made concrete and person- 
al, and its influence is most excellent. 

Not so fortunate has been the attempt to pre- 
sent the great truths and ideals of religion in the 
secondary grades. The human appeal, so fruitful 
in the lower classes, does not appear in the higher, at 
least to the same degree. Instead the work is formal 
and prescribed. Interest dies out and even respect 
for the work rapidly wanes as the pupil passes into 
more advanced grades. I have often thought while 
observing the listlessness of the pupils during the period 
for religious teaching that the effects upon morals 



200 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

and religion would be better by far without the in- 
struction as now provided. 

To find lodgment in the heart and expression in 
the experiences of youth, religious principles must be 
made to appear practical and vital. They must be 
shown to be desirable in themselves and in their 
ends. 

To teach religion successfully one must be a liv- 
ing example of its true values, an earnest interpreter 
of its meaning and power, and a sympathetic friend 
of the pupils. Besides this he must be a genuine 
teacher with a knowledge of youth and ability to 
help others obtain a clear conception of the beauty 
and worth of the nobler life. 

Religion and morality are so intimately bound 
up with life's activities that it is difficult to consider 
them in and of themselves. It is quite impossible to 
curriculize and present them as subjects for study 
and instruction without building up in consciousness 
the idea that they may or may not be phases of life. 
When this is attempted it is liable to diminish rather 
than to increase their true meaning. 

It is at least possible that the most favorable 
results come through specific occasions which arise 
apart from set requirements. A genuine experience 
in real life is the best illustration of what morality 
and religion mean, and it furnishes the most secure 
foundation for instruction along these lines. 

Few lessons and no subjects of instruction can 
be fully presented without giving considerable atten- 
tion to their moral and religious phases . If a lesson is 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 201 

completely mastered its moral and religious contri- 
butions will have been taken over and appropriated 
along with any and all other contents. When the 
moral and religious values inherent in school studies 
receive their proportionate emphasis there will be no 
crying need of arranging special courses for their 
study. The seriousness of the situation at present 
lies not in the fact that there are no special courses 
of instruction in morality and religion, but rather in 
the condition that teachers fail to recognize their 
opportunities for giving such instruction. They should 
impress the children with the fact that morality and 
religion are component parts of life and that they 
give meaning and reality to every human experi- 
ence. While it would be gratifying to see these sub- 
jects taught as separate branches by individuals who 
could make them profitable, it is much more impera- 
tive that all teachers recognize their own responsi- 
bility in this regard, whatever subjects they have 
to teach. 

TJie Classics 

In common with those of many other 
countries, the school curricula of Norway have 
been saturated with the classics. For a long 
time the secondary schools were devoted largely to 
the presentation of the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin 
languages. About 1850, there arose a demand for an 
education which was more utilitarian. Nature study, 
the sciences, manual training, modern foreign languages, 



202 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

and home economics pressed their claims for recognition 
and the people became convinced of their values. 
The masses then began to investigate what right 
the languages of the ancients had for occupying so 
large a proportion of attention in school work. 

Gradually the ancient classics were replaced by 
more modern educational materials. Hebrew and 
Greek were in their turn dropped from the list of re- 
quired subjects and the time thus saved was given 
to work regarded as more vital and beneficial. In 
1896, a very decisive step was taken when by legis- 
lative enactment Latin — ^the last of the dead lan- 
guages — was omitted from the list of subjects required 
in the school curriculum. 

This act of the Storthing has been severely criti- 
cised by some. However, the people whose right and 
duty it was to decide studied the matter carefully 
and thoroughly at home and abroad, and after calm 
consideration, acted in harmony with their best judg- 
ment, passed the law, and put in into immediate exe- 
cution. The momentum of former practices, the force 
of tradition, or the example of other nations was not 
sufficient to control the Norwegian state in its action. 
It does not permit precedent to determine its policies, 
foreign nations to do its thinking, nor "well-enough" 
systems to prevent reform. 

When higher ground is seen clearly Norway 
moves forward with all its power, determined to occu- 
py and utilize the greater opportunities. Such was 
the condition of the state in its consideration of the 
classics in their school curriculum. They were willing 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 203 

that those individuals who might elect to pursue the 
study of the ancient languages should have the privi- 
lege to do so and they provided for them such oppor- 
tunity. However, they were definitely convmced that 
to require all pupils to study these subjects in order 
to complete courses of study or enter the university 
was an injustice. To their credit be it said that when 
they are convinced that a certain course of pro- 
cedure is best they have the moral courage to pursue 
it. In this particular instance the people were fully 
aware of the fact that they were taking a step which 
was a decided deviation from the straightforward 
course pursued for centuries by the leading national 
educational systems. Yet they became converted to 
the idea that for their own good, under their own 
conditions, and looking forward to their future as a 
state and nation, it would be the wiser solution to 
leave the classics behind and devote more time and 
energy to studies which they conceived to be more 
efficacious. 

It is interesting to note the recent tendencies 
in this direction in other countries. In the United 
States Latin is becoming less and less a required sub- 
ject of instruction in the high schools, and each year 
lengthens the list of colleges which do not require it 
for entrance. Even conservative and classic-loving 
Germany has recently opened the doors of her uni- 
versities to those who have finished the Real-gym- 
nasia. Thus they, too, acknowledge that the way 
of the classics is not the only road to higher culture 
and learning. 



204 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

It has come to be almost universally recognized 
that the schools exist for the learner rather than the 
learner for the schools. To debar an individual from 
privileges for which he is prepared simply because he 
has not met certain inherited traditional prescrip- 
tions is rapidly becoming unorthodox. Norway seems 
to have set the pace for other nations in at least this 
one respect, and her clearsighted move in displacing 
the classics by the introduction of larger amounts 
of modern foreign languages and other branches of 
greatest present utility is being followed by other 
nations of sound pedagogical principles. 

Physical Culture 

Few are the instances where the physical 
development of the children is so effectually pro- 
vided for as among the Norwegians. Gym- 
nastics is a regular feature throughout the entire 
course of study until the completion of the gymna- 
sium. In addition to this the universal rule of requir- 
ing the pupils to go into the open air during the inter- 
missions which follow every class meeting has its good 
effects. Athletic sports also have recently become 
more important features of school life. Fortunately 
they have not reached a point of specialization where 
their values are open to question. 

Buildings and grounds are constructed and laid 
out with the physical welfare of children in mind. As 
a consequence we find gymnastic halls well equipped 
and grounds supplied with the advantages most essen- 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 205 

tial in the accomplishment of the desired end, viz., 
a strong and vigorous body in which to develop a 
somid mind. Their school grounds are small, making 
a crowded condition the rule in the larger schools. 
Strange as it may seem, the same unfortunate con- 
dition prevails almost universally in our own land 
where there appears to be little excuse for congestion. 
However, the size of the grounds is perhaps a matter 
of minor importance, especially when compared to 
their use. Space and equipment may be regarded 
as incidental; use is the all-important part. Our 
grounds are not used. We rarely have but one, if 
any, intermission except the noon hour, the greater 
portion of which is occupied in going for the midday 
meal. The results of the Norwegians' enforced, fre- 
quent, and regular use of the play-grounds are in 
evidence on every hand. Robust, vigorous, buoyant, 
active, healthy, sound, alert, and the like adjectives 
are the appropriate ones to use in speaking of the 
physiques of their pupils. 

Were the influences of bodily conditions upon 
mental growth and activity fully appreciated, the 
schools would doubtless make a sudden shift toward 
providing adequately for physical education. Physi- 
cal development has been regarded with considerable 
favor for some time, but it has usually been a secon- 
dary affair when it should have been introduced as a 
vital feature. Educational systems should provide for 
the training and development of the physical as well 
as the mental life. They are dependent upon each 
other and are in fact two phases of the same life. 



206 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

It is obviously wasteful to seek to develop the one 
without regard to the other, or to attempt the culti- 
vation of one at the expense of the other. 

Vocal Music 

Music is among the most potent factors 
in developing national spirit and loyalty. Plato 
wrote: "Any musical innovation is full of danger 
to the whole state, and ought to be prohib- 
ited. . . . When modes of music change, the 
fundamental laws of the state always change with 
them,"* Napoleon stated that if he might write the 
nation's songs he cared not who might write its laws. 
Music in the better forms has moved individuals and 
nations to great accomplishments, and its efficacy is 
generally recognized. As a means of education, how- 
ever, it receives far too little attention. 

The quality of music sung in the schools of Nor- 
way has some points of superiority. One feature in 
making it a powerful contributor in developing loyal 
and competent citizens is the use they make of the 
best compositions from their own writers. Their 
poets and musicians have furnished large amounts 
of excellent productions. They sing of their heroes 
and of their national ideals and achievements. The 
spirit in their songs reflects the soul of their father- 
land. The influence upon the lives of the pupils 
contributes to solidarity of the nation and to love 
for its institutions. 

* Plato, The Republic, p. 424. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 207 

Contrast this with the results of the rattle of rag- 
time and jigs. Too much of our public school, Sunday 
school, and church music has been of this order. Pub- 
lic school music and education along this line are 
matters deserving more attention than they receive. 
Recent introduction into many schools of victrolas 
with records of masterpieces produced by the leading 
artists of the world point to a recognition of the edu- 
cative value of the better quality of selections. To 
hear the same productions direct from the soul of the 
artist would be many times as effectual as any me- 
chanical reproduction, but this is beyond the reach of 
the masses. Present indications give assurance that 
the near future will see music more nearly occupying 
its legitimate place in our educational provisions. 

LINES OF INSTRUCTION IN THE GYMNASIUM 

In the second and third years of gymnasial 
work three courses of study are open, viz., Real, Lan- 
guage-History^ and Language-History with Latin. Here 
pupils get their first experience in electing the line 
of work wherein their study shall center. This seems 
a rather fortunate provision, for by this time Ukes 
and dislikes for certain subjects of study, special 
aptitudes along specific lines, and choice of life work 
are coming into the foreground of consciousness. The 
pupils' likes and aptitudes working together influence 
their decisions concerning life's activities. Again the 
disposition and nature of individuals render one line 
of study more attractive and beneficial than either of 



208 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

the others. There are, indeed, many influences at 
work upon pupils of such age which make it appear 
highly advisable to follow some particular line of 
study. 

Whether pupils go into the chosen line of life 
work directly from the gymnasium or by way of the 
university, it is of distinct advantage to specialize 
along the line for which they are preparing. Should 
they intend to teach, they would doubtless prefer 
studying most the subjects to be taught. In these 
they would have deepest interest, and from their pur- 
suit they would derive greatest profit. If they de- 
termined to study theology, law, medicine, or some 
other special phase of learning, they would make se- 
lection of gymnasial course with that object in view. 
Whatever the work to follow completion of the gymna- 
sium, the different courses prepare for the narrower 
specialization which characterizes life's activities and 
all their university study. 

The following table presents the exact work rep- 
resented by the three courses in form convenient for 
comparisons. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 209 

TABLE XII. 

The Three Courses of Study in the Gymnasia of Norway 
Showing Weekly Hours Given to Each Subject.* 







1 






2 






3 






1 


II 


III 


I 


II III 


I 


II 


III 


ReUgion 

Norwegian 

German 


1 
5 
4 


1 
6 
3 


1 
6 
3 


1 
5 
4 


1 
6 
3 


1 

7 
3 


1 
5 
4 


1 
6 
3 


1 
6 
3 


EngUsh 
French 


4 
4 


2 
2 


1 

2 


4 
4 


7 
3 


7 
5 


4 

4 


2 
3 


1 
3 


Latin 
















7 


11 


History 
Geography 
Natural Science 


3 

4 


3 
5 


3 

1 
7 


3 
4 


5 

2 


5 

2 


3 
4 


3 

2 


3 

2 


Mathematics 


5 


6 


6 


5 


3 




5 


3 




Drawing 




1 


1 















30 31 31 30 30 30 30 30 30 

*1. Singing and gymnastics — 5 or 6 hours per 
week are omitted from the table. 

2. 1, Real course, 2, Language-History course, 
3, Language-History course with Latin. 

As the table shows, the three courses are identical 
during the first year and uniform in religion and Ger- 
man throughout the three Jy ears. The Language- 



210 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

History course lends itself favorably for purposes of 
comparison. It stresses the importance of several 
modem languages and history, giving to them a pre- 
eminence over all other work. The Real course re- 
duces the work in English, French, Norwegian, and 
History and increases the amount of science and 
mathematics. The course including Latin makes sim- 
ilar reductions but emphasizes Latin instead of the 
sciences and mathematics. 

The Nor^^egians believe it better and cheaper to 
offer the different courses in the same school than to 
provide separate schools. This plan necessitates less 
duplication and at the same time affords quite as 
adequate facilities for whatever specialization the dif- 
ferent courses represent. 

CO-EDUCATION 

Whether schools should be co-educational has 
been a live question among many nations for gen- 
erations, and considerable time will yet elapse be- 
fore unanimity of opinion is reached. 

Nearly all the schools of Norway are co-educa- 
tional. However, in some of the city systems boys 
and girls use different playgrounds, and in certain 
schools they are segregated also for purposes of in- 
struction. These matters are governed according to 
the wishes of the inspector or the desires of the prin- 
cipals of the different schools. The aim is to combine 
the better phases represented in various methods and 
to adopt the plan best suited to the local situation. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 211 

or the one to which the person in charge is converted 
and in which he can, because of his convictions, accom- 
pUsh best results. 

"The separation of the sexes is complete in all 
the schools of Germany excepting some of the pri- 
mary classes. The advisability of this is a large ques- 
tion, but by no means a settled one. . . . Ger- 
many feels that she has the proper solution, while in 
America, with an opposite answer, we feel for the 
most part satisfied."* 

In American public schools co-education is al- 
most universally practiced. In reference to this mat- 
ter we give the opinions of some prominent educa- 
tors. The lamented Dr. Harris, while engaged in the 
St. Louis, Mo., schools, wrote: "Discipline has im- 
proved continually with the adoption of mixed schools ; 
. . . the mixing of the male and female depart- 
inents of a school has always been followed by improve- 
ment in discipline, not merely on the part of the boys, 
but on that of the girls as well. The rudeness and 
abandon which prevail among boys when separate at 
once give place to self-restraint in the presence of 
girls. The prurient sentimentality engendered by 
educating girls apart from boys . . . disappears 
almost entirely in mixed schools."! The Honorable 
John Eaton while Commissioner of Education of the 
United States made report concerning the co-education 
of the sexes in several hundred large and small cities 

* Bolton, F. E., The Secondary School System of Germany, 
375. 
t Report of Bureau of Education, 1891-1892, Vol. II. p. 807. 



212 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

in the Union. The tenor of the entire report is well 
summarized in the following sentence: *'We are cre- 
ated male and female; all the impulses and activities 
of nature enforce co-education; if we must live to- 
gether we must be educated to that end; to educate 
separately is an attempt to change the natural order 
of human economy."* 

In our higher institutions of learning the situa- 
tion is much the same. The Commissioner of Edu- 
cation, referring to the State University of Iowa, 
writes, "The report of the president says that the 
experience of the institution has imiformly been fav- 
orable to the co-education of the sexes; that their 
influence on each other in the acquisition of learning 
has been most beneficial as well as conducive to orderly 
habits. The presence of both sexes is considered 'an 
invaluable feature' in restraining indecorum and an 
'inducement to every virtue.' "f The practice has 
continued with similar results throughout the entire 
country. 

Instances favorable to co-education might be 
multiplied. Its adoption has become a foregone con- 
clusion so far as our general system of education is 
concerned. True we do have some colleges and a 
few secondary schools devoting themselves exclusively 
to the education of one or the other of the sexes. Not 
many of them are state institutions. They are* usually 
private schools and they answer a certain demand 
whether well founded or not. 

* Special Report. No. 2, 1883. 

t Report of Commissioner of Education, 1878, p. 71. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 213 

There are certain questions in connection with 
the education of the sexes which are fundamental 
and need considerable attention. However, no at- 
tempt can be made here to solve the many important 
problems suggested. It is the intent only to emphasize 
the necessity of being awake to real conditions and to 
indicate the fact that herein lies a field for the educa- 
tor's most careful consideration. 

The questions arise: Are the natural functions 
of man and woman enough ahke to justify making 
their education identical, and will the adoption of 
such a plan of education result in the advancement 
or deterioration of the race? A recent article referring 
"to the endeavor to use women industrially, socially, 
and politically on the same footing as men" sounds 
a warning note, crying out against the present tenden- 
cies which are taking from the flower of womankind 
thousands who are eminently fitted for motherhood, 
"woman's essential function on the globe," and 
diverting their lives to other and less noble pursuits. 
"It is therefore essential to the race," say the authors, 
"that the ablest, healthiest, and finest women should 
be encouraged, tempted, compelled, if necessary, by 
circumstances to devote themselves to family life by 
becoming wives and mothers, and it is doubtful how 
far it is expedient to draw them off, even for a time to 
other occupations."* 

While co-education is in agreement with condi- 
tions of family life, is economic, and continues to be 

* Whetham, W. C. D. and C. D., Decadence and Civilization, 
The Hibbert Journal, Vol. X. No. 1. 



214 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

entirely practicable, the question still remains whether 
there may not be justification in a demand for certain 
fundamental differences to be made in adapting edu- 
cational means and matter to the two sexes. Co-edu- 
cation, however, may continue without making the 
education of the sexes identical. In fact it is very 
easily possible to make the education of the sexes 
fundamentally different even though both institutions 
and class activities are co-educational in practice. 
A difference in the amount of work in certain groups 
of subjects required of men and women, respectively, 
might furnish a satisfying solution of this question. 
And if there are certain branches of study which should 
belong exclusively to one or the other of the sexes, 
it is a simple matter to separate for such work. On 
the whole it seems to the writer highly advisable to 
educate the sexes together as far as possible. 

THE SCHOOL YEAR 

The regular school year in Norway has forty 
weeks of six days each. The plan of having school 
on Saturdays furnishes an additional day of fruitful, 
well directed activity to the children, who might other- 
wise be permitted to spend the time in idleness or 
misguided conduct. 

In America we have so many vacations and holi- 
days that our schools are in session only about 75 or 
80 per cent of the time utihzed in Norway. We may 
be justified in having the long summer vacations 
because of the inconvenience and depletion of strength 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 215 

occasioned by the heat, but several of our vacations 
during the year and the practice of having no school 
on Saturdays are inheritances without much justi- 
fication. School activities, when rightly conducted, 
should be invigorating and exhilarating instead of 
producing a state of prolonged fatigue requiring sea- 
sons of inactivity or other changes in order to regain 
lost vitality. Again, the relaxation occasioned by 
diversion of thought and change of activity on Sunday 
is certainly sufficient to counteract any necessity of 
using Saturday for recuperation. It appears evident 
that we are not as frugal in this matter as sound judg- 
ment demands that we should be. 

SCHOOL LUNCHES 

It has been found that mental activity is 
very greatly affected by conditions of nutrition. 
The quality, quantity, and preparation of foods, 
together with regularity in eating, determine to 
a considerable extent what may be the progress of 
the pupil in his growth, both mental and physical. 
The child who is improperly fed or underfed is there- 
by handicapped, while the one who receives intelli- 
gent care along the same line is placed at a distinct 
advantage. 

That in all large cities there are hundreds and 
thousands of underfed children is a fact of common 
knowledge. In many cities provisions have been made 
for supplying at least one meal per day free of charge 
to all needy pupils. Norway has been in the forefront 



216 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

in this paternalistic movement. Several of her cities 
have midertaken this noble work and probably no 
city in the world can boast of more adequate facili- 
ties for carrying it on than Christiania. 

They purchase the best procurable quality of the 
most nutritious food, prepare it in a wholesome and 
palatable manner, and send it out from a central 
kitchen to the several primary schools of the city in 
such quantities as are needed to liberally supply the 
demands. The food is served hot in the regular lunch 
rooms absolutely free to all children whose parents ask 
it and at first cost to others. This work in Christiania 
is typical of the provisions made in other cities but 
the equipment, and possibly the system of distribu- 
tion, is superior to that found elsewhere. 

In addition to this, nutritious and easily digested 
foods and drinks are provided at other schools and 
served at a moderate cost in the lunch rooms at stated 
hours in the day. This latter provision is generally 
in charge of the family of the janitor of the building 
and is most common m the private and secondary 
schools to which the previously mentioned plan does 
not extend. 

Experiment has demonstrated in our own land 
that it is entirely practicable to provide at a minimum 
cost warm, well-cooked, wholesome foods to either 
supplement or replace the cold indigestible lunches 
so commonly carried by school children. The cities 
and towns enjoy few if any advantages over the rural 
districts in this regard. The plan is workable and 
advisable, and it should be more commonly adopted. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 217 

COMPARATIVE ATTAINMENTS 

In the study of the school system of 
Norway it is interesting to compare the school 
life and attainments of the pupils with those 
of American children. It is true that until we 
have established norms for measuring the results 
of education, we cannot make accurate statements 
regarding the relative standing of pupils nor estimate 
precisely their accomplishments. However, we are 
able to single out some features of importance and 
compare them in a general way. 

It has been noted that the Norwegian pupils 
begin school at seven years of age, while the American 
children commence at five or six. Many prominent 
educators believe that our American children start 
to school too young. They are of the opinion that 
their development, physical and mental, would be 
better if they did not begin formal school work until 
at least seven or eight years of age. The greater phy- 
sical development of the Norwegians, due to their later 
start, gives them a distinct advantage. Their bodily 
strength and vigor supplement and aid their mental 
growth. 

Passing through Norway's successive grades of 
school to the completion of the gymnasium requires 
twelve years. The same length of time is used in 
reaching graduation from our American high school. 
Now it is generally conceded that a graduate of the 
gymnasium in Norway is two years in advance of a 
graduate of the American high school; or in other 



ns THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

words a student entering the university from Nor- 
way's gymnasial course has an education equivalent 
to that of an individual entering the junior year of 
work in an American college or university. Some 
would rank the Norwegian even higher than I have 
here suggested; however, only a very general compar- 
ison can be made. 

In consideration of these conditions the question 
arises: How shall we account for the fact that we 
use two extra years in order to reach approximately 
the same standard? It is recalled that the Norwegian 
entering school at seven and progressing at the normal 
rate are ready for university work at nineteen while 
the Americans begin two years earlier in order to reach 
the same attainments at the same age. If the Nor- 
wegian pupils accomplish as much in twelve years, 
beginning at seven years of age, as our American chil- 
dren do in fourteen years, commencmg at five, should 
we rest satisfied, or should we modify our system 
so as to profit by their experience? Why permit 
traditions or precedent to rob us of choice benefits 
within our reach? 

Again, the students entering the Norwegian uni- 
versity are older and more mature both physically 
and mentally than are ours. Being older, their habits 
of life are more definitely formed, and they are better 
fitted to undertake the responsibility of self-direction. 
It has been suggested by some that we extend the work 
of the high school in order to keep our children under 
parental guidance until they are sufficiently mature 
to care for themselves at less hazard. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 219 

The course pursued by Norwegian pupils is uni- 
form for all until the last two years of the secondary 
school, when certain branches of study may be chosen 
for major attention. When students start to the uni- 
versity they enter immediately upon specialized lines 
of work and pursue them to their limits. The Amer- 
ican pupils are privileged to elect a considerable pro- 
portion of their secondary school work, yet they do 
not generally specialize at all until their junior year in 
college; frequently they postpone definite specialization 
until the beginning of graduate courses. 

Fundamental social characteristics enter into 
educational ideals, and each nation, very naturally, 
develops a system of schools peculiarly adapted to 
its needs. There are, of course, general underlying 
principles which operate in all educational systems 
and place them on similar bases; there are also cer- 
tain features, essential in the make-up of the individ- 
ual systems, which are not common. These peculiar 
factors give distinctive character to the various sys- 
tems and are of telling effect in determining their 
excellencies. Whether these special phases affect the 
life and accomphshments of the pupils, the nature of 
their work, the management of school affairs, or other 
educational activities; they render the different systems 
almost impossible of comparison. However, they are 
suggestive, and frequently they may be modified and 
used in improving the systems of other countries. 



220 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

METHODS OF INSTRUCTION 

Every successful teacher presents his subject in con- 
formity with some universal principles of method. While 
these cannot be mechanically systematized and used 
according to unchanging rules, they form a necess- 
ary part of an instructor's equipment. The teacher 
who knows the subject and is master of the technique 
of instruction is sure of success, while the one with- 
out method will fail. 

It seems that the pedagogues of Norway have 
formed a happy combination of some methods of 
instruction. They appreciate the value of the class 
meeting and with them "teaching goes on chiefly in 
what we call the recitation. This is the teacher's point 
of contact with his pupils; here he meets them face to 
face and mind to mind; here he succeeds or fails in 
his function of teaching."* 

The excellence of the work of instruction in Ger- 
many has long been recognized. That "the German 
teacher teaches" is very generally known. He tran- 
scends all texts and is an authority on the subjects 
he presents. By pedagogic training he has been 
exalted to a place of eminence in his profession. It 
is possible that they over-emphasize the work of the 
instructor and neglect the part that pupils should 

play- 
In America various methods of instruction are 
in use. One plan is to regard teacher and pupils as 
co-operators in activities wherein interests are common. 
* Betts, G. H., The Recitation, p. 2. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 221 

The teacher, having had experience, exercises Control 
and serves as chief guide through the most critical 
places in the way of progress. So far as possible the 
pupils are encouraged to exercise individual initiative 
and to become independent. They are not to be 
merely recipients from the teacher's vast store of 
knowledge, but with him they are to become genuine 
participators in the world's thoughts and activities. 

Another plan in all too common use may be 
designated as the "text book method." According 
to it the major portion of information comes from the 
voluminous, logically developed, well-arranged, and 
somewhat attractively printed and bound readable 
text. The function of the teacher is largely testing 
knowledge gained from books, assigning lessons in 
the text, supplementing the work of the pupils from 
his own store or by reference to other works on the 
subject, and stimulating them to earnest effort in 
every possible way. 

President Hall would not regard this text book 
plan of work as very worthy procedure. He writes 
that some teachers take time "telling pupils what to 
do and testing to see if they have done it. But this 
is not teaching; but a device of ignorance, laziness, or 
physical weakness, or all combined. The real teacher 
teaches and reduces recitation to a minimum. Who- 
ever has visited the best continental schools or studied 
comparatively such national educational exhibitions 
as those of St. Louis must have been acutely impressed 
with the fact that we exhibit what the pupil does, 
Europe what the teacher does. Here he says, 'Go, 



THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 



do this, and prove to me that you have done it.* 
There he says, 'Come, let us study together; I know 
and will inform, interest and inspire you to goon.' "* 
The instructors in the schools of Norway are true 
teachers but they do not rely wholly upon their own 
activity. The text finds a place not so large as in 
American schools but of some consequence. The pupils 
are privileged to act on their own initiative to some 
extent though they are not granted unlimited freedom. 
They co-operate with the teachers in many lines of 
school work where they find interest and profit. Dem- 
onstration is largely in the hands of the teachers. 
The testing of lessons studied is a common exercise 
with them, and their class hours are given to intensive 
activity in which every individual member is expected 
to be a participant and contributor. They, like we 
in America, aim to suit instruction to pupils of average 
ability rather than to the brightest as they do in Ger- 
many and France. 

CONTINUITY OF EFFORT 

By referring to the programs of work arranged 
for the successive years in the schools of Norway, one 
readily sees that there is but little variation in sub- 
jects of study from the first grades of the primary 
school to the completion of the gymnasium. The 
change of greatest importance is the introduction 
of foreign languages — German and English the first 
and second years in the middle schools and French the 
first year in the gymnasium. 

* Hall. G. Stanley, Educational Problems, Vol. II., p. 295. 



INTERPRETATIVE CONCLUSIONS 223 

When the child enters school he begins subjects 
of study which represent the several fields of knowl- 
edge. The teaching aims to keep him in touch with 
these in ways adapted to his stage of development. 
As the pupil grows the scope of each subject enlarges. 
They advance together. Keeping the subject definitely 
in mind for a long time tends to the creation of perma- 
nent interests and at the same time makes possible 
its assimilation into the very life of the learner. It 
becomes vital and usable after being acted upon in 
the various stages and conditions of life through which 
the child passes. Inter-relations and associations with 
other subjects of study and various phases of life are 
affected, which give to it distinct values. Too often 
we find in our own schools that hurried and intensive 
study of certain subjects does not create permanent 
interests nor prove of real worth. 

If natural forces in the child are recognized and 
utilized they facilitate the learning process and make 
school activities profitable and delightful. It is a well 
attested fact that at certain periods in the psycholo- 
gical development of a child mastery of special phases 
of learning is easy for him. Courses of study and 
plans of instruction should be prepared in such a way 
that the different phases of work included may be 
presented and stressed while the nascent period of 
interest is on. 

We Americans are given to dividing a subject 
into its separate phases, studying them consecutively 
for short periods of time, and then forgetting them. 
The plan is wasteful and unpedagogic. Note the 



224 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

manner in which we break up the work in mathematics 
and in the mother tongue. It is questionable whether 
there be a single valid argument favoring such practice. 

The Norwegians present mathematics as a single 
and comprehensive subject. The same is true in their 
teaching of the mother tongue. The plan is advan- 
tageous from every view point. It is certainly con- 
ducive to economy of time and efficient results. 
Instead of breaking up subjects of instruction and 
isolating their several phases from each other, we 
ought rather to keep them intact and set about 
co-ordinating the several branches of instruction as 
closely as possible. 

Education should seek to associate and inter- 
relate the truths we obtain and to organize our knowl- 
edge into an effectual system. The formation of a 
comprehensive curriculum, with arrangements for its 
presentation in harmony with sound psychological 
and pedagogical principles, is a matter of pressing 
importance. 

Wliile the school systems of the present are evi- 
dently superior to what any past generation has 
known, yet the investigations of psychologists and 
educationists stress the fact that in many ways they 
are weak and inefficient. The accumulated experi- 
ence of the past needs overhauling by masters with 
insight and foresight. Educational methods and prin- 
ciples which have been tested and proven worthy 
should be put into operation. Each nation should 
devise and adopt the most perfect educational system 
possible, and this then should be carried into execu- 
tion by an army of qualified teachers responsive to 
the call for truly consecrated service. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 



BOOKS 



Erichsen, A. E., Bergers Kathedrahkoles Historie. 

Hertzberg, N., Paedagogiskens Historie. 

Hoist, Axel, Skolehygiene. - 

Monroe, W. S., In Viking Land. Norway: Its People, 

Its Fjords and Its Fjelds. 
Paludan, J., Det Hoiere Skolevaesen i Danmark^ Norge 

og Sverig. 
Salmonsens Store Illustrerede Konversationsleksikon. 
Thieste, J. Schaan, Byskoleloven med Forklarende 

Anmerkninger. 
Thieste, J. Schaan, Landskoleloven med Forklarende 

Anmerkninger. 

PERIODICALS AUD REPORTS 

Anderssen, Otto, Fra Norske Skoleforhold i 1908, Vor 

Ungdom, 1909, 
Anderssen, Otto, Fra Norske Skoleforhold i 1909, Vor 

TJngdom, 1910. 
Anderssen, Otto, '^ Norwegisches Schulwesen/' Son- 

derabdruck aus W. Rems Encyklopadis- 

chem Handbuch der Pddagogik, 2. Auflage. 
Anderssen, Otto, Skolen for Skolens Opgaver. 

225 



226 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Anderssen, Otto, "The New Laws for the Secondary 
Schools m Norway," Special Reports on 
Educational Subjects, Gt. Britam, 8:168, 

Heiberg, J. V., "Education in Norway," Norway 
(Official Publication for the Paris Exhi- 
bition 1900), pp. 266-294. 

Nissen, Hartvig, "Public Instruction in Norway," 
The American Journal of Education, 8: 
295-304. 

Norsk Skoletidende, Published since 1869. 

Pogue, Belle C, "Education and Schools of Norway," 
Education, 10: 420-424.1 

Report of the Commissioner of Education of the United 
States, 1871, 1873, 1878, 1881, 1882-3, 
1885-6, 1888-9, 1889-90, 1891-2, 1894-5, 
1896-7, 1897-8, 1902, 1903, 1906, 1910. 

Skolebladet, Pubhshed since 1898. 

Thornton, J. S., "Schools Pubhc and Private in the 
North of Europe," Special Reports on 
Educatio;nal Subjects, Great Britain, 17: 
36-65. 

Void, J. Hourly, Report of Royal Commission of 
Secondary Education, Great Britain, 5: 
640-644. 

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS 

Beretning om Skolevaesenets tilstand i Kongeriget 

Norge. Yearly since 1861. 
Forslag til en forandret Ordning af den h0iere Almen- 

skole af den ved kgl. Resolutions af 



BIBLIOGRAPHY <m 

3 die September 1890 nedsatte Kom- 
mission. 

Gynmasiet: Lov om h0iere Almenskoler; Reglement 
for de h0iere Almenskoler; Under vis- 
ningssplan; Eksamensreglement ; 1911. 

Lov af 9de Jmie 1903 om forandret Pr0ver ved Uni- 
versitetet. 

Lov om abn0rme B0ms Undervisning. 

Lov om behandling af fors0mte B0m. 

Lov om det Kongelige Frederiks Universitet. 

Lov om Folkeskolen i Kj0bstaedeme. 

Lov om Folkeskolen paa Landet. 

Lov om h0iere Almenskoler. 

Lov om Laererskoler og Pr0ver for Laerere og Laerer- 
inder i Folkeskolen. 

Middelskolen : Lov om li0iere Almenskoler; Regle- 
ment for de h0iere Almenskoler; Under- 
visningsplan; Eksamensreglement. 1911. 

Naermere Bestemmelser angaaende de offentlige Laer- 
erskoler og Laererpr0ver. 

Norwege: Lois sur L'Enseignement Public. 

Odelsthings Proposition Nr. 36 (1909) om forandringer 
i Lov om h0iere Almenskoler av 27de 
Juli 1896. 

Odelsthing Proposition Nr. 12 (1910) : A. Om forand- 
ringer i lov om h0iere Almenskoler av 
27de Juli 1896. B. Om forandring i 
lov om forberedende pr0ver ved Univer- 
sitet av 9de Juni 1903. 

Reglement for Aarspr0ver, Middelskole-eksamen, og 
Eksamen Artium. 



228 THE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF NORWAY 

Rieglement for de h0iere Almenskoler og Undervis- 

ningsplan for Middelskolen, 1903. 
Reglement for den ved Lov af 18 de Januar 1902 anord- 

nede Optagelsespr0ve ved Laererskolenie. 
Reglement for det Paedagogiske Seminar og Paeda- 

gogisk Eksamen. 
Statistisk Aarbok for Kongeriket Norge. Yearly. 
Sortliings Proposition Nr. 1, Hovedpost V. (1910) 

om bevilgning til det h0iere Skolevaesen. 
Undervisningsplan for Gymnasiet, 1903. 
Universitets-og Skole-Annaler. Yearly. 



INDEX 



Age of pupils, 44-49; completing 
secondary schools, 48; on en- 
tering the university, 48; in 
teachers' seminaries, 49. 

Age of teachers, 49. 

Agriculture, 24. 

America of interest to the Nor- 
wegians, 173. 

Apparatus, 145-14C. 

Astronomy, 177. 

Attendance at school, 54, 77. 

Authority, 189. 

Certificates, 80. 

Centralization of authority, 191. 

Christiania's central kitchen, 75, 

76. 
Christianity established, 20. 
Church and state united, 115,184. 
Classes, size of, 40. 
Classics, in America, 204; in 

Germany, 204; their decline, 

202. 
Climate, effects of, 183. 
Co-education, 40, 210-214; in 

America, 211-213; in Germany, 

211. 
Cooking, 148. 
Co-ordination, between grades, 

149; between subjects, 162; of 

educational agencies, 186. 
Correlation, 223; between schools 

189, 190. 
Course of study, 57,. 96-181, 197- 

207, 209, 218, 219; aim of, 148; 

changes in, 97 ; development of, 

97-101, 222, 223; during mid- 



dle ages, 96; linguistic-histori- 
cal, 31; Latin, 31; real 31; 
secondary, 171; suited to 
people served, 219; uniform- 
ity of, 198. 

Defective children, 186. 

Department of Ecclesiastical and 
Educational Affairs, 51. 

Delinquents, mental, 187; moral, 
187. 

Diocesan directors, 52. 

Discipline in school, 76, 77. 

Distribution of schools, 34, 35. 

Drawing, 146, 147. 

Educational commission, 52. 

Educational attainments, Nor- 
way and America compared, 
216-219; time required, 217, 
218. 

Educational authority, 188. 

Educational equipment, Norway 
and America compared, 49, 50. 

Educational requirements, 27, 
34; parents held responsible 
for 55. 

Educational standards, 54, 55. 

Educational system, 184, 188, 

Electives, 207, 208. 

English, 156, 172, 173; in elemen- 
tary schools, 173; its grammar, 
156; length of course, 173; 
methods in, 156. 

Examen artium, 31. 

Examinations, uniformity in, 188. 

Exceptional child, 186. 

Eyesight, 77, 78. 



229 



INDEX 



Fisheries, 24. 

French, 168-170; difficulties in 
study of, 170; length of course, 
169. 

Geography, 129-134, 158, 159, 
177; aim in, 129, 159; methods 
of presenting, 130-133; of 
America, 133; texts, 159. 

German, 154, 155, 167, 168; 
authors studied, 168; methods 
in, 155. 

Grammar, 153, 154, 156. 

Gymnasium, 100, 103-181, 207- 
210. 

Gymnastic halls, 69. 

Gymnastics, 69, 70, 74, 75, 148, 
204-206; apparatus, 148; dur- 
ing intermissions, 69, 70; Swed- 
ish system of, 75. 

Hall, G. S., 189, 190. 

Harold, the Fair-Haired, 19. 

Health of pupils, 77, 78, 148, 205. 

History, 19, 134-139, 156-158, 
174-177; aim of, 134, 138; be- 
ginnings in, 134; methods in, 
157, 158, 176; of Norway, 176; 
nature of work in, 157; related 
to geography, 135; stories, 134, 
135, 138. 

Houses for janitors, 70; for prin- 
cipals, 70; for teachers in the 
rural districts, 70, 71. 

Ideals of the people, 182, 183. 
Illustrative materials, 66. 
Imitation, law of, 82. 
Industrial training, 147, 148. 
Industries and occupations, 24. 
Infant schools, 53. 
Intermissions, 69, 70. 

Laboratories, 67, 68, 69. 

Latm, 173-174, 202; courses in, 

167; length of course in, 174; 

methods in, 174. 



Libraries, 67, 68. 

Lumbering, 24. 

Lunches, 75, 76, 215, 216. 

Limch rooms, 69; in Christiania, 
215, 216. 

Luther, influence of, on educa- 
tion, 184. 

Lutheran church, 114, 115. 

Management of schools, 188-191. 

Manual training, 147, 148. 

Martin Luther's influence in edu- 
cation, 184. 

Mathematics, 125-129, 160, 178, 
179, 223; aim in, 125; connec- 
tion between phases of the 
subject, 160; co-ordination in 
128; methods in, 128, 129; 
texts in, 129; thoroughness in, 
160; use of, 128. 

Medical inspection, 77, 78. 

Mental delinquency, 187. 

Methods, 72, 73, 74, 82, 83, 219- 
222; in German, 155; in his- 
tory, 157, 158, 176; in mother 
tongue, 118, 119; in nature 
study, 140; in religion, 163, 
164, 200. 

Middle school, 31, 32, 100, 149- 
162; its aim, 149, 150; its found- 
ation, 149; length of course in, 
149, 150; its lunits, 149; work 
of, 31, 32. 

Moral delinquents, prevention 
and care of, 187. 

Mother tongue, 118-124, 152-154, 
164-167; aim on instruction in, 
118; correct use of, 123; in 
America, 124; inclusiveness of 
work in, 123, 124; methods in, 
118, 119; nature of work in, 

166, 167. 

Natural history, 179-181 ; labora- 
tory work in, 180, 181. 

Nature study, 139-146, 161, 162, 
179-181; aiin of, 139; illustra- 
tive material in, 140-146; 



INDEX 



231 



Nature Study, 

character, ICl, 162; laboratory 
work in, 180, 181; methods in, 
140; scope of, 139. 

Norway, adopts constitution, 20; 
area of, 22; becomes independ- 
ent, 22; climate of, 23; develop- 
ment of, 20, 183; geography of, 
22; history of, 19; nights in, 24; 
period of transition in, 183; 
political divisions of, 22; revolt 
of, 20; its union with Den- 
mark, 20; its union with Swe- 
den, 20. 

Normal schools in the United 
States, 193, 194. 

Norwegians, characteristics of, 
25, 26, 27; as colonizers, 20; 
as sailors, 25; conservative, 
184, 185; democratic, 184, 
185. 



Primary education, 52. 

Private institutions, 81. 

Private schools, 42-44, 54, 186; 
equipment of, 43; inspection of, 
43; recognition of, 44; second- 
ary, 186; teachers' seminaries, 
186; technical institutes, 186; 
tuition in, 43. 

Primary schools, 36-39, 185; at- 
tendance in, 36-39; course of 
study in, 102, 104, 106; curri- 
culum in, 99; rural and city, 
101; their financing, 62. 

Professional training, 33, 79-85, 
194, 195; amount of, 194, 195; 
attitude toward, 194; stand- 
ards of, 33. 

Promotion of teachers, 198. 

Pupils, in gymnasia, 40; in lower 
schools, 40; in middle schools 
40. 



Observation and practice, 83, 84. 

Occupations, 24. 

Offices, 67, 68. 

Officials, duties of, 188; efficiency 

of, 189. 
Organization, needed in America, 

189. 

Paganism overcome, 20. 

Pedagogical seminary, 84, 85, 
185, 193, 195. 

Pensions, 92, 93. 

People, ideals of, 182, 183. 

Permanency of teaching posi- 
tions, 87-89; advantages of, 87; 
objections to, 88; present ten- 
dencies with reference to, 89. 

Physical culture, 204-207. 

Physician, 77, 78. 

Physical geography, 177. 

Political geography, 177. 

Practice teaching, 83, 84. 

Private citizens, their part in 
school affairs, 61, 62. 



Recitation, method of, 72 , 4. 

Religion, 108-117. 

Religious characters, 114. 

Religious education, 115-1 17, 151, 
152, 163, 164, 199-202; advan- 
tages of, 116; excused from, 
117; loss of interest in, 163, 
164; methods in, 163, 164, 
200; objection to, 116, 117; re- 
quired, 116; results of, 115- 
117. 

Royal Frederik University, 32. 

Schools, agricultural, 33; ambula- 
tory, 29; cathedral, 30; com- 
munal, 63; elementary, 29, 30; 
gymanasial, 30; maintained by 
industrial concerns, 53; middle, 
30; mihtary, 33; peoples', 28; 
state, 63; technical, 33; their 
distribution, 34, 35. 

School boards, committees of, 
56; officers of, 56; organiza- 
tion of, 55, 56. 



INDEX 



School buildings, appointment 

and equipment of, 64-69; con- 
struction of, 205, 
School committees, appointed by 

board, 56; duties of, 57, 58, 59. 
School curriculum, 197-207. 
School discipline, 76, 77. 
School districts, 53. 
School funds, 62. 
School grounds, 205. 
School life, in Norway, 217, 218; 

in America, 217, 218. 
School physician, 77, 78. 
School principal, 60; duties of, 

60, 61. 
School room decoration, 67. 
School system, its development, 

197. 
School year, 54, 55; compared 

with American, 50; length of, 

28; in America, 214. 
Secondary schools, 52, 149, 185; 

select strongest pupils, 149. 
Sewing, 148. 

Special classes for defectives, 186. 
Special teachers, 80. 
Specialization in university, 51. 
Standards of work, 190. 
Supermtendent, 60, 85; duties of, 

60. 



Teachers, attitude toward youth, 
83; certificates, 80; life of, 195- 
197; rooms for, 67, 68; salaries 
of, 63, 91-95; sex of, 71, 72; 
special considerations, 91, 92; 
their tenure of office, 71, 72. 

Teacher's qualifications, 79, 80, 
146, 196; improvement of, 196; 
in secondary schools, 79, 80. 

Teachers' seminaries, 33, 193; 
attendance at, 42; curricula in, 
82; private, 41; weaknesses of, 
83; work of, 81. 

Teachers' tenure of office, 86-91; 
in America, 89. 

Teachers' titles, 85-86; signific- 
ance of, 86; use of, 86. 

Teachers' trainmg, 81, 83, 84, 
85, 191-195; for secondary 
schools, 85; in Germany, 192- 
193. 

Teaching as a profession, in Nor- 
way, 79, 80; its value, 196. 

Technical schools, 185. 

Vikings, 19. 

Vocal music, in America, 207; its 
influence, 206; Napoleon on, 
206: nature of, in Norway, 147. 

Writing, 146. 



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